Photoschaltbare Azobenzol-modifizierte selbstorganisierte Monoschichten auf Gold(111)-Oberflächen

Für die Entwicklung photoschaltbarer selbstorganisierter Monoschichten (SAMs) auf Gold(111)-Oberflächen wurden neue Azobenzol-terminierte Asparagussäure - und Liponsäurederivate synthetisiert. Um den Einfluss lateraler Wasserstoffbrückenbindungen auf Qualität und Orientierungsordnung der Schichten zu untersuchen, wurden Monolagen, die durch amid- und esterverknüpfte Verbindungen gebildet wurden, miteinander verglichen. Die Filmbildung aus der Lösung wurde in situ durch optische Frequenzverdopplung (SHG) untersucht und die Photoreaktivität mittels Kontaktwinkelmessungen, Oberflächen-Plasmonenresonanz (SPR) und Ellipsometrie verfolgt. SAMs auf Gold wurden außerdem mit Hilfe von Röntgenphotoelektronenspektroskopie (XPS), Nahkanten-Reflexions-Röntgenabsorptionsspektroskopie (NEXAFS) und Infrarot-Reflexionsabsorptionsspektroskopie (IRRAS) charakterisiert, um die Filmqualität, die Bindung ans Substrat und Orientierungsordnung im Film zu ermitteln. Da die Chemisorption auf polykristallinem Gold formal der Koordinationschemie von 1,2-Dithiolan-Derivaten gegenüber nullwertigen Edelmetall-Zentralatomen entspricht, wurden etliche Pt-Komplexe durch oxidative Addition an [Pt(PPh3)4] dargestellt. Im Zusammenhang mit der Darstellung der Asparagussäure wurde die Kristallstruktur von [pipH]2[WS4] und der neuen Verbindungen [pipH]3[WS4](HS) und [pipH]4[WS4][WOS3] (pip = Piperidin) bestimmt. Wasserstoffbrückenbindungen zwischen den Piperidinium-Kationen und den Thiowolframat-Anionen spielen eine dominante strukturelle Rolle.

Neue redoxfunktionalisierte Schwefel-Tripodliganden für selbstassemblierende monomolekulare Filme auf Goldoberflächen

Für die Entwicklung selbstorganisierter Monoschichten (SAMs) auf Gold(111)-Oberflächen wurden neue, redox-funktionalisierte Schwefel-Tripodliganden synthetisiert. Um die tripodale Struktur zu realisieren, wurde Adamantan als vierbindiges Zentrum eingesetzt. Die Anbindung an die Goldoberfläche wurde durch Thioethereinheiten ermöglicht, eventuelle laterale Wechselwirkungen durch Alkylseitenketten an den Thioethereinheiten, sowie durch lineare, rigide Spacereinheiten wurden untersucht. Als redoxaktive, funktionelle Einheit wurde ein Ferrocenylrest an den Liganden eingeführt. Gebildete monomolekulare Filme der Liganden auf Gold wurden mit Hilfe von Röntgenphotoelektronenspektroskopie (XPS), Nahkanten-Reflexions-Röntgenabsorptionsspektroskopie (NEXAFS) und Sum-Frequency-Generation (SFG) charakterisiert, um die Filmqualität, die Bindung ans Substrat und Orientierungsordnung im Film zu ermitteln.

Synthese von Azobenzolderivaten zur Darstellung photoschaltbarer, selbstorganisierter Monolagen

Im Vordergrund dieser Arbeit stehen die Synthesen des Azobenzol-4-trichlorsilans sowie des Bis(4-azobenzol)disulfids, ausgehend von einfachen und kommerziell erhältlichen Verbindungen. Moleküle, aus denen sich diese Verbindungen synthetisieren lassen, sind die Iodderivate des Azobenzols, welche über die Kondensation von Benzolaminen (Anilinen) und Nitrosobenzolen dargestellt wurden, aber auch über die altbewährte Azokupplung. Insgesamt wurden 19 neue Azobenzolderivate, das neue [(4-Aminophenyl)ethinyl]ferrocen und das neue Bis[4-(4'-bromazobenzol)]disulfid synthetisiert und charakterisiert. Außerdem wurden 13 neue Kristallstrukturen erzeugt. Mit den synthetisierten Molekülen wurden Substrat-Adsorbat-Systeme gebildet. Als Substrate wurden oberflächenoxidiertes Silizium und Gold gewählt. Die Präparation dieser sogennanten selbstorganisierten Monolagen (SAMs) bzw. der kovalent gebundenen Monolagen im Falle der Trichlorsilylderivate (CAMs) wurde eingehend studiert. Das Azobenzol wurde als photoschaltbare Einheit gewählt, da es bereits Kern zahlreicher Untersuchungen war und als solcher als guter und zuverlässiger Baustein für reversible photoschaltbare Systeme etabliert ist. Zur Charakterisierung Schichten und zur Untersuchung ihres photoresponsiven Verhaltens sowie sowie zur Untersuchung der Schichtbildung selbst wurden mehrere physikalische Messmethoden angewandt. Die Schichtbildung wurde mit SHG (optische Frequenzverdopplung) verfolgt, die fertigen Schichten wurden mit XPS (Röntgen-Photonen-Spektroskopie) und NEXAFS (Nahkanten-Röntgen-Absorptions-Feinstruktur) untersucht, um Orientierung und Ordnung der Moleküle in der Schicht zu ermitteln. Das Schaltverhalten wurde mit Ellipsometrie und durch Messungen des Wasserkontaktwinkels beobachtet. Durch Variation der Endgruppe des Azobenzols ist es möglich, die Oberflächeneigenschaften einstellen gezielt zu können, wie Hydrophobie, Hydrophilie, Komplexierungsverhalten oder elektrische Schaltbarkeit. Dies gelingt durch Gruppen wie N,N-Dimethylamino-, Methoxy-, Ethoxy-, Octyloxy-, Dodecyloxy-, Benzyloxy-, Methyl-, Trifluormethyl-, Pyridyl-, Phenylethinyl- und Ferrocenyl-Restgruppen, um nur eine Auswahl zu nennen. Einerseits wurde Silizium als Substrat gewählt, da es wegen seiner Verwendung in der Halbleiterindustrie ein nicht uninteressantes Substrat darstell und die Möglichkeiten der kovalenten Anbindung von Trichlorsilanen aber auch Trialkoxysilanen auch gut untersucht ist. Andererseits wurden auch Untersuchungen mit Gold als Substrat angestellt, bei dem Thiole und Disulfide die bevorzugten Ankergruppen bilden. Während sich auf Gold sogenannte SAMs bilden, verleiht die kovalente Siloxanbindung den CAMs auf Silizium eine besondere Stabilität.

Koordinationschemie auf Oberflächen

Oberflächen, die reversibel auf einen externen Stimulus reagieren, werden als intelligente Oberflächen bezeichnet und sind von großem Interesse für Wissenschaft und Technik. Im diesem Rahmen haben wir ein modulares Synthesekonzept entwickelt, das die spontane Selbstorganisation funktionaler Adsorbatmoleküle auf Au(111) und HOPG ausnutzt. Das Design der Adsorbatmoleküle erlaubt eine modulare Synthese. Scheibchenförmige Moleküle wie Phthalocyanine und Porphyrine, die in der Peripherie Thioetherseitenketten tragen, dienen als Anbindungseinheiten. Das zentrale Metallatom dient als Anknüpfungspunkt für starre Einheiten, die aus Abstandshaltern und Funktionsträgern bestehen. Dieses Konzept erlaubt es sowohl die laterale Separation Funktionseinheiten einzustellen um es den Funktionsträgern zu ermöglichen ohne Behinderung durch Nachbarmoleküle ihre Funktion auszuüben. Für diese Arbeit waren Funktionseinheiten wichtig, deren Funktionen unter anderem Redoxaktivität, Photoschaltbarkeit, Komplexierung katalytisch aktiver Metalle und Immobilisierung onkogener Proteine umfassen. Zum Beleg dieses Konzeptes wurde ein starres Ferrocen-Derivat für die Postmodifizierung eines Zn-Phthalocyanin-SAMs verwendet. Die erhaltenen Filme wurden mittels C1s- und Fe2p-NEXAFS-Spektroskopie ebenso untersucht wie mittels TDS. Strukturell verwandte Komplexe konnten durch RSA charakterisiert werden.

A New Class of Nonionic Photosensitive Surfactants: Some Insights Concerning Conformations

We report on a new class of nonionic, photosensitive surfactants consisting of a polar di(ethylene oxide) head group attached to an alkyl spacer of between two and eight methylene groups, coupled through an ether linkage to an azobenzene moiety. Structural changes associated with the interconversion of the azobenzene group between its cis and trans forms as mediated by the wavelength of an irradiating light source cause changes in the surface tension and self-assembly properties. Differences in saturated surface tensions (surface tension at concentrations above the CMC) were as high as 14.4 mN/m under radiation of different wavelengths. The qualitative behavior of the surfactants changed as the spacer length changed, attributed to the different orientations adopted by the different surfactants depending on their isomerization states, as revealed by neutron reflection studies. The self-assembly of these photosensitive surfactants has been investigated by light scattering, small angle neutron scattering, and cryo-TEM under different illuminations. The significant change in the self-assembly in response to different illumination conditions was attributed to the sign change in Gaussian rigidity, which originated from the azobenzene photoisomerization.

Stimuli-responsive Novel Amphiphilic Polymers for Chemical and Biomedical Applications

Amphiphilic polymers are a class of polymers that self-assemble into different types of microstructure, depending on the solvent environment and external stimuli. Self assembly structures can exist in many different forms, such as spherical micelles, rod-like micelles, bi-layers, vesicles, bi-continuous structure etc. Most biological systems are basically comprised of many of these organised structures arranged in an intelligent manner, which impart functions and life to the system. We have adopted the atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) technique to synthesize various types of block copolymer systems that self-assemble into different microstructure when subject to an external stimuli, such as pH or temperature. The systems that we have studied are: (1) pH responsive fullerene (C60) containing poly(methacrylic acid) (PMAA-b-C60); (2) pH and temperature responsive fullerene containing poly[2-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate] (C₆₀-b-PDMAEMA); (3) other responsive water-soluble fullerene systems. By varying temperature, pH and salt concentration, different types microstructure can be produced. In the presence of inorganic salts, fractal patterns at nano- to microscopic dimension were observed for negatively charged PMAA-b-C60, while such structure was not observed for positively charged PDMAEMA-b-C60. We demonstrated that negatively charged fullerene containing polymeric systems can serve as excellent nano-templates for the controlled growth of inorganic crystals at the nano- to micrometer length scale and the possible mechanism was proposed. The physical properties and the characteristics of their self-assembly properties will be discussed, and their implications to chemical and biomedical applications will be highlighted.

Defining Structure in Electrospun Polymer Fibres

We use a combination of microscopy, x-ray scattering and neutron scattering to show how structure develops in micro and nano-size polymer fibres prepared by electrospinning. The technique has been applied to a range of different polymers, an amorphous system (polystyrene), a crystallisable polymer (poly-epsilon-caprolactone), a composite systems (polyethylene oxide or poly vinyl alcohol containing polypyrrole) and consider the possibility of self assembly (gelatin).

Hydrogen-bonded interpolymer complexes. Formation, structure and applications

Noncovalent interactions play key roles in many natural processes leading to the self-assembly of molecules with the formation of supramolecular structures. One of the most important forces responsible for self-assembly is hydrogen bonding, which also plays an important role in the self-assembly of synthetic polymers in aqueous solutions. Proton-accepting polymers can associate with proton-donating polymers via hydrogen bonding in aqueous solutions and form polymer-polymer or interpolymer complexes. There has been an increased interest among researchers in hydrogen-bonded interpolymer complexes since the first pioneering papers were published in the early 1960s. Several hundred research papers have been published on various aspects of complex formation reactions in solutions and interfaces, properties of interpolymer complexes and their potential applications. This book focuses on the latest developments in the area of interpolymer complexation via hydrogen bonding. It represents a collection of original and review articles written by recognized experts from Germany, Greece, Kazakhstan, Poland, Romania, Russia, UK, Ukraine, and the USA. It highlights many important applications of interpolymer complexes, including the stabilization of colloidal systems, pharmaceuticals, and nanomaterials.

Wormlike micelle formation and flow alignment of a pluronic block copolymer in aqueous solution

The self-assembly into wormlike micelles of a poly(ethylene oxide)-b-poly(propylene oxide)-b-poly(ethylene oxide) triblock copolymer Pluronic P84 in aqueous salt solution (2 M NaCl) has been studied by rheology, small-angle X-ray and neutron scattering (SAXS/SANS), and light scattering. Measurements of the flow curves by controlled stress rheometry indicated phase separation under flow. SAXS on solutions subjected to capillary flow showed alignment of micelles at intermediate shear rates, although loss of alignment was observed for high shear rates. For dilute solutions, SAXS and static light scattering data on unaligned samples could be superposed over three decades in scattering vector, providing unique information on the wormlike micelle structure over several length scales. SANS data provided information on even shorter length scales, in particular, concerning "blob" scattering from the micelle corona. The data could be modeled based on a system of semiflexible self-avoiding cylinders with a circular cross-section, as described by the wormlike chain model with excluded volume interactions. The micelle structure was compared at two temperatures close to the cloud point (47 degrees C). The micellar radius was found not to vary with temperature in this region, although the contour length increased with increasing temperature, whereas the Kuhn length decreased. These variations result in an increase of the low-concentration radius of gyration with increasing temperature. This was consistent with dynamic light scattering results, and, applying theoretical results from the literature, this is in agreement with an increase in endcap energy due to changes in hydration of the poly(ethylene oxide) blocks as the temperature is increased.

Can a consecutive double turn conformation be considered as a peptide based molecular scaffold for supramolecular helix in the solid state?

Helices and sheets are ubiquitous in nature. However, there are also some examples of self-assembling molecules forming supramolecular helices and sheets in unnatural systems. Unlike supramolecular sheets there are a very few examples of peptide sub-units that can be used to construct supramolecular helical architectures using the backbone hydrogen bonding functionalities of peptides. In this report we describe the design and synthesis of two single turn/bend forming peptides (Boc-Phe-Aib-Ile-OMe 1 and Boc-Ala-Leu-Aib-OMe 2) (Aib: alpha-aminoisobutyric acid) and a series of double-turn forming peptides (Boc-Phe-Aib-IIe-Aib-OMe 3, Boc-Leu-Aib-Gly-Aib-OMe 4 and Boc-gamma-Abu-Aib-Leu-Aib-OMe 5) (gamma-Abu: gamma-aminobutyric acid). It has been found that, in crystals, on self-assembly, single turn/bend forming peptides form either a supramolecular sheet (peptide 1) or a supramolecular helix (peptide 2). unlike self-associating double turn forming peptides, which have only the option of forming supramolecular helical assemblages. (c) 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Dipeptide nanotubes, with n-terminally located omega-amino acid residues, that are stable proteolytically, thermally, and over a wide range of pH

Two dipeptides containing an N-terminally positioned omega-amino acid residue (beta-alanine/delta-amino valeric acid) self-assembles to form nanotubes in the solid state as well as in aqueous solution. In spite of having hollow nanotubular structures in the solid state and in solution, their self-assembling nature in these two states are different and this leads to the formation of different internal diameters of these nanotubes in solution and in solid state structure. These nanotubes are stable proteolytically, thermally, and over a wide range of pH values (1-13). The role of water molecules in nanotube formation has been investigated in the solid state. These nanotubes can be considered as a new class of dipeptide nanotubes as they are consisting of N-terminally located protease resistant omega-amino acid residues and C-terminally positioned alpha-amino acid residues. These dipeptides can form an interesting class of short peptidic structure that can give rise to stable nanotubular structure upon self-assembly and these nanotubes can be explored in future for potential nanotechnological applications.

Biological soft materials

The soft side of life: Recent insights into the self-assembly of biological materials, including proteins, DNA, lipids, and blood cells, are reviewed. The particular focus is on applying concepts from soft-matter physics and chemistry to understand structural self-organization.

Nematic and columnar ordering of a PEG-peptide conjugate in aqueous solution

The self-assembly in aqueous solution of a PEG-peptide conjugate is studied by spectroscopy, electron microscopy, rheology and small-angle Xray and neutron scattering (SAXS and SANS). The peptide fragment, FFKLVFF is based on fragment KLVFF of the amyloid beta-peptide, A beta(16-20), extended by two hydrophobic phenylalanine units. This is conjugated to PEG which confers water solubility and leads to distinct self-assembled structures. Small-angle scattering reveals the formation of cylindrical fibrils comprising a peptide core and PEG corona. This constrained structure leads to a model parallel beta-sheet self-assembled structure with a radial arrangement of beta sheets. Oil increasing concentration, successively nematic and hexagonal columnar phases are formed. The flow-induced alignment of both structures was studied in situ by SANS using a Couette cell. Shear-induced alignment is responsible for the shear thinning behaviour observed by dynamic shear rheometry. Incomplete recovery of moduli after cessation of shear is consistent with the observation from SANS of retained orientation in the sample.

Multiple lyotropic polymorphism of a PEG-peptide diblock copolymer in aqueous solution

Nematic and hexagonal columnar liquid crystal phase formation by a PEG-peptide conjugate is reported. The results are relevant to peptide-polymer Conjugates and bionanomaterial self-assembly (with relevance to PEGylated peptides used in therapeutic applications). The use of modified fragments of the amyloid beta peptide is especially interesting with respect to amyloid fibrillization and its control.

Interactions of an anionic surfactant with poly(oxyalkylene) copolymers in aqueous solution

The interactions of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) with poly(ethylene oxide)/poly(alkylene oxide) (E/A) block copolymers are explored in this study: With respect to the specific compositional characteristics of the copolymer, introduction of SDS can induce fundamentally different effects to the self-assembly behavior of E/A copolymer solutions. In the case of the E18B10-SDS system (E = poly(ethylene oxide) and B = poly(butylene oxide)) development of large surfactant-polymer aggregates was observed. In the case of B20E610-SDS, B12E227B12-SDS, E40B10E40-SDS, E19P43E19-SDS (P = poly(propylene oxide)), the formation of smaller particles compared to pure polymeric micelles points to micellar suppression induced by the ionic surfactant. This effect can be ascribed to a physical binding between the hydrophobic block of unassociated macromolecules and the non-polar tail of the surfactant. Analysis of critical micelle concentrations (cmc*) of polymer-surfactant aqueous solutions within the framework of regular solution theory for binary surfactants revealed negative deviations from ideal behavior for E40B10E40-SDS and E19P43E19-SDS, but positive deviations for E18B10-SDS. Ultrasonic studies performed for the E19P43E19-SDS system enabled the identification of three distinct regions, corresponding to three main steps of the complexation; SDS absorption to the hydrophobic backbone of polymer, development of polymer-surfactant complexes and gradual breakdown of the mixed aggregates. (C) 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.