Revision and cladistic analysis of Isoctenus and description of a new neotropical genus (Araneae, Ctenidae, Cteninae)

A cladistic analysis was applied to test the monophyly of the genus Isoctenus. The data matrix comprised 28 taxa scored for 53 morphological and two behavioural characters. The analysis resulted in two equally parsimonious trees of 89 steps. The strict consensus was used to discuss the relationships of Isoctenus and related Cteninae genera. Ctenopsis Schmidt is synonymized with Isoctenus. Isoctenus foliifer Bertkau, I. strandi Mello-Leitao, I. eupalaestrus Mello-Leitao, I. janeirus (Walckenaer), I. coxalis (Pickard-Cambridge), I. corymbus Polotow, Brescovit & Pellegatti-Franco and I. malabaris Polotow, Brescovit & Ott are maintained in Isoctenus. Four species currently included in Ctenus are transferred to Isoctenus: I. griseolus (Mello-Leitao) comb. nov., I. taperae (Mello-Leitao) comb. nov., I. herteli (Mello-Leitao) comb. nov. and I. minusculus (Keyserling) comb. nov. The following specific names are synonymized: Ctenus sanguineus Walckenaer, C. semiornatus Mello-Leitao and Ctenopsis stellata Schmidt with Isoctenus janeirus (Walckenaer), Ctenus mourei Mello-Leitao with Isoctenus herteli (Mello-Leitao) and Ctenus pauper Mello-Leitao with Isoctenus strandi Mello-Leitao. Isoctenus sigma Schenkel, described from French Guiana, is transferred to Ctenus. Four species are newly described: Isoctenus areia sp. nov. from Paraiba, Brazil, I. charada sp. nov. and I. segredo sp. nov. from Parana, Brazil, and I. ordinario sp. nov. from south and south-eastern Brazil and north-eastern Argentina. Isoctenus latevittatus Caporiacco is considered species inquirenda. Parabatinga gen. nov. is proposed to include Ctenus brevipes Keyserling. The following synonymies are established: Ctenus taeniatus Keyserling, C. tatarandensis Tullgren, C. anisitsi Strand, C. atrivulvus Strand, C. mentor Strand, C. brevipes brevilabris Strand, Isoctenus masculus Mello-Leitao and Ctenus birabeni Mello-Leitao with Parabatinga brevipes (Keyserling) comb. nov. (C) 2009 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2009, 155, 583-614.

Description of Toca, a new neotropical spider genus (Araneae, Ctenidae, Calocteninae)

Toca new genus is proposed to include two new species: the type species T. bossanova new species from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and T samba new species from Parana and Minas Gerais, Brazil. Toca may be related to Caloctenus Keyserling and Gephyroctenus Mello-Leitao, with which it shares the scales on the abdominal dorsum and the epigynum as a single, slightly sclerotized, fold. The genus can be distinguished among the Calocteninae genera by its unique genital structures.

Four new species of Maranta L. (Marantaceae) from Brazil

Maranta is a neotropical genus, species of which are found in moist and shaded habitats in forests and in the cerrado. During the preparation of Maranta`s monograph for the Flora Neotropica, four new species were discovered and are now described: Maranta longiflora S.Vieira & V.C.Souza, Maranta coriacea S.Vieira & V.C.Souza, Maranta pulchra S.Vieira & V.C.Souza and Maranta purpurea S.Vieira & V.C.Souza. These species are found in dry habitats, frequently near watercourses or occasionally in humid and shaded places. Two, M. pulchra and M. purpurea, seem to be endemic to the state of Mato Grosso. (C) 2008 The Linnean Society of London.

Review and cladistic analysis of the Neotropical tarantula genus Ephebopus Simon 1892 (Araneae : Theraphosidae) with notes on the Aviculariinae

The tarantula genus Ephebopus Simon 1892 is reviewed and includes the type species, E. murinus (Walckenaer 1837), and E. uatuman Lucas, Silva & Bertani 1992, E. cyanognathus West & Marshall 2000, E. rufescens West & Marshall 2000 and Ephebopus foliatus, sp. nov., from Guyana. Ephebopus violaceus Mello-Leitao 1930 is transferred to Tapinauchenius Ausserer, where it is a senior synonym of Tapinauchenius purpureus Schmidt 1995 new synonymy. Ephebopus fossor Pocock 1903 is considered a nomen dubium. Ephebopus occurs in northeastern South America where it is known only from Brazil, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana. Spiders of the genus are generally fossorial; however, Ephebopus murinus has a developmental stage that is arboreal. A cladistic analysis of the Theraphosidae retrieves the Aviculariinae as monophyletic, including Avicularia Lamarck, Iridopelma Pocock 1901, Pachistopelma Pocock 1901, Tapinauchenius, Psalmopoeus Pocock, Ephebopus, Stromatopelma Karsch and Heteroscodra Pocock, having as a synapomorphy the well-developed scopulae on tarsi and metatarsi I-II that is very laterally extended.

Out of Amazonia again and again: episodic crossing of the Andes promotes diversification in a lowland forest flycatcher

Most Neotropical lowland forest taxa occur exclusively on one side of the Andes despite the availability of appropriate habitat on both sides. Almost all molecular phylogenies and phylogenetic analyses of species assemblages (i.e. area cladograms) have supported the hypothesis that Andean uplift during the Late Pliocene created a vicariant barrier affecting lowland lineages in the region. However, a few widespread plant and animal species occurring in lowland forests on both sides of the Andes challenge the generality of this hypothesis. To understand the role of the Andes in the history of such organisms, we reconstructed the phylogeographic history of a widespread Neotropical flycatcher (Mionectes oleagineus) in the context of the other four species in the genus. A molecular phylogeny based on nuclear and mitochondrial sequences unambiguously showed an early basal split between montane and lowland Mionectes. The phylogeographic reconstruction of lowland taxa revealed a complex history, with multiple cases in which geographically proximate populations do not represent sister lineages. Specifically, three populations of M. oleagineus west of the Andes do not comprise a monophyletic clade; instead, each represents an independent lineage with origins east of the Andes. Divergence time estimates suggest that at least two cross-Andean dispersal events post-date Andean uplift.

Breeding of the Rufous-thighed Hawk (Accipiter erythronemius) in Argentina and Brazil

The Rufous-thighed, Hawk (Accipiter erythronemius) is a poorly-known, small raptor that dwells in forests and wooded savannas in south and eastern Brazil, Taraguay, eastern Bolivia, north and central Argentina, and Uruguay. We studied breeding biology and food habits of the Rufous-thighed Hawk from 1994 to 2007. We documented 14 breeding attempts recorded at nine nest sites in eight localities in Argentina and Brazil. Rufous-thighed Hawks were year-round residents at the study areas. The breeding season was c. 38 weeks long (June through March). Territorial behavior and courtship spanned for 22 weeks starting in mid June. Nest-building started in August. Nestlings were observed throughout December and into early January while fledglings were observed from late December through late March. Most nest sites were conifer plantations averaging 32.2 (SD = 10) years old, 12.6 ha (SD = 11.3) in size with trees averaging d 37.5 cm (SD = 13.5) of diameter at breast height. Nests were placed 20.2 m high (SD = 5.7), near the trunks of non-emergent conifers (Pinus sp. or Araucaria angustifolia). Nests were made of sticks, greater diameter averaging 48.8 cm (SD = 11.4), while nest depth averaged 23.3 cm (SD = 14). Prey items were birds (n = 49) ranging in size from c. 10 g [House Wren (Troglodytes, aedon)] to c. 140 g [White-tipped Dove (Leptotila verreauxi)]. Young started to chase birds at the age of 42-45 days in mid January. Adult males were primarily food providers but also aided in nest defense against other raptors. Females incubated, brooded, and fed young, and took leading roles in defense against humans. Rufous-thighed Hawks had unlined nests placed high in trees, and breeding season was markedly protracted.

Patterns of diversification in two species of short-tailed bats (Carollia Gray, 1838): the effects of historical fragmentation of Brazilian rainforests

The small-sized frugivorous bat Carollia perspicillata is an understory specialist and occurs in a wide range of lowland habitats, tending to be more common in tropical dry or moist forests of South and Central America. Its sister species, Carollia brevicauda, occurs almost exclusively in the Amazon rainforest. A recent phylogeographic study proposed a hypothesis of origin and subsequent diversification for C. perspicillata along the Atlantic coastal forest of Brazil. Additionally, it also found two allopatric clades for C. brevicauda separated by the Amazon Basin. We used cytochrome b gene sequences and a more extensive sampling to test hypotheses related to the origin and diversification of C. perspicillata plus C. brevicauda clade in South America. The results obtained indicate that there are two sympatric evolutionary lineages within each species. In C. perspicillata, one lineage is limited to the Southern Atlantic Forest, whereas the other is widely distributed. Coalescent analysis points to a simultaneous origin for C. perspicillata and C. brevicauda, although no place for the diversification of each species can be firmly suggested. The phylogeographic pattern shown by C. perspicillata is also congruent with the Pleistocene refugia hypothesis as a likely vicariant phenomenon shaping the present distribution of its intraspecific lineages. (C) 2011 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2011, 102, 527-539.

Phylogenetic relationships of the Neotropical spider genus Itatiaya (Araneae)

A cladistic analysis using parsimony under equal weights is applied to test the phylogenetic relationships of Itatiaya Mello-Leitao, previously described in Ctenidae. The data matrix comprised 25 taxa scored for a total of 47 characters. The cladistic analysis yielded two equally parsimonious trees of 124 steps. The consensus of the two most parsimonious trees is used to discuss the phylogenetic relationships and justify taxonomic modifications. The results indicate that this genus is a representative of Zoropsidae, which is newly recorded from the Neotropical region. The monophyly of Itatiaya is supported by three non-ambiguous synapomorphies and three homoplastic synapomorphies. A new diagnosis is provided for Itatiaya. Itatiaya pucupucu is placed as sister species to the remaining species of the genus. A polytomic clade composed of Itatiaya modesta, Itatiaya iuba, Itatiaya apipema and the clade formed by Itatiaya tacamby + Itatiaya pykyyra is supported by the presence of modified cylindrical gland spigots. Additionally, the male of I. pykyyra Polotow & Brescovit is described for the first time.

Frugivory by phyllostomid bats (Mammalia: Chiroptera) in a restored area in Southeast Brazil

We studied the potential contribution of frugivorous bats to the reestablishment of vegetational diversity in a restored area. We analysed the diets of the bat species and the differences between them in the consumption of fruits of autochtonous and allochthonous species. Planted (autochtonous) species were the basis of diets, especially Solanum mauritianum and Cecropia pachystachya, whereas for allochthonous species we found that Piperaceae to be of particular importance. Carollia perspicillata was the main seed disperser for allochthonous species, and potentially the most important bat in the promotion of vegetation diversity in the study area. Our results suggest that frugivorous bats are especially important in the reestablishment of vegetation in disturbed areas, and that restorarion efforts should focus on the planting of different zoochorous species that would guarantee a high year-round fruit production, thereby facilitating natural plant reestablishment by frugivorous bats in regenerating areas. (C) 2010 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.

Assessing the impact of deforestation and climate change on the range size and environmental niche of bird species in the Atlantic forests, Brazil

Aim Habitat loss and climate change are two major drivers of biological diversity. Here we quantify how deforestation has already changed, and how future climate scenarios may change, environmental conditions within the highly disturbed Atlantic forests of Brazil. We also examine how environmental conditions have been altered within the range of selected bird species. Location Atlantic forests of south-eastern Brazil. Methods The historical distribution of 21 bird species was estimated using Maxent. After superimposing the present-day forest cover, we examined the environmental niches hypothesized to be occupied by these birds pre- and post-deforestation using environmental niche factor analysis (ENFA). ENFA was also used to compare conditions in the entire Atlantic forest ecosystem pre- and post-deforestation. The relative influence of land use and climate change on environmental conditions was examined using analysis of similarity and principal components analysis. Results Deforestation in the region has resulted in a decrease in suitable habitat of between 78% and 93% for the Atlantic forest birds included here. Further, Atlantic forest birds today experience generally wetter and less seasonal forest environments than they did historically. Models of future environmental conditions within forest remnants suggest generally warmer conditions and lower annual variation in rainfall due to greater precipitation in the driest quarter of the year. We found that deforestation resulted in a greater divergence of environmental conditions within Atlantic forests than that predicted by climate change. Main conclusions The changes in environmental conditions that have occurred with large-scale deforestation suggest that selective regimes may have shifted and, as a consequence, spatial patterns of intra-specific variation in morphology, behaviour and genes have probably been altered. Although the observed shifts in available environmental conditions resulting from deforestation are greater than those predicted by climate change, the latter will result in novel environments that exceed temperatures in any present-day climates and may lead to biotic attrition unless organisms can adapt to these warmer conditions. Conserving intra-specific diversity over the long term will require considering both how changes in the recent past have influenced contemporary populations and the impact of future environmental change.

A new species of Lauromacromia (Odonata: Corduliidae) from Southeastern Brazil, with a cladistic analysis of the genus and comments on Neotropical dragonfly biogeography

Lauromacromia melanica sp. nov. from Conceicao da Barra municipality, Espirito Santo State, Brazil, is described and illustrated based on two males (both in MNRJ n degrees 135). The new species is similar to L. picinguaba differing from it mainly by the absence of pale spots on S3-6 and by the ellipsoid shape of metepisternal pale stripe. A key for males of all species of the genus is provided. A cladistic analysis encompassing 43 external morphological male characters carried out in two distinct procedures, the first with all characters unordered and the second with two or three state characters ordered. The unordered analysis generated only one most-parsimonious tree (66 steps of length, CI = 0.69, RI = 0.62). The hypothesis of monophyly of Lauromacromia is supported and includes three groups, one formed by the Atlantic Forest species (L. melanica sp. nov. + L. picinguaba), and another by the Cerrado species (L. flaviae + (L. bedei + L. luismoojeni)), and L. dubitalis, positioned in polytomy with these two groups. The ordered analysis also generated only one most-parsimonious tree (68 steps of length, CI = 0.70, RI = 0.67), which maintained the monophyly of Lauromacromia but L. dubitalis positioned basally as sister-group to the Atlantic Forest + Cerrado species groups. The geographic distribution of Lauromacromia is updated with a new record of L. luismoojeni based on one adult male (Brazil: Mato Grosso do Sul State) and probable first Brazilian records for L. dubitalis (Amazonas and Para States) based on two larvae. A vicariance hypothesis is proposed to explain spatial evolution of Lauromacromia, and based on current biogeographical classifications we consider Gomphomacromia and Rialla apart from Neotropical biota. Some aspects of biology and ecology of Lauromacromia are also discussed.

Untangling associations between chironomid taxa in Neotropical streams using local and landscape filters

1. Analyses of species association have major implications for selecting indicators for freshwater biomonitoring and conservation, because they allow for the elimination of redundant information and focus on taxa that can be easily handled and identified. These analyses are particularly relevant in the debate about using speciose groups (such as the Chironomidae) as indicators in the tropics, because they require difficult and time-consuming analysis, and their responses to environmental gradients, including anthropogenic stressors, are poorly known. 2. Our objective was to show whether chironomid assemblages in Neotropical streams include clear associations of taxa and, if so, how well these associations could be explained by a set of models containing information from different spatial scales. For this, we formulated a priori models that allowed for the influence of local, landscape and spatial factors on chironomid taxon associations (CTA). These models represented biological hypotheses capable of explaining associations between chironomid taxa. For instance, CTA could be best explained by local variables (e.g. pH, conductivity and water temperature) or by processes acting at wider landscape scales (e.g. percentage of forest cover). 3. Biological data were taken from 61 streams in Southeastern Brazil, 47 of which were in well-preserved regions, and 14 of which drained areas severely affected by anthropogenic activities. We adopted a model selection procedure using Akaike`s information criterion to determine the most parsimonious models for explaining CTA. 4. Applying Kendall`s coefficient of concordance, seven genera (Tanytarsus/Caladomyia, Ablabesmyia, Parametriocnemus, Pentaneura, Nanocladius, Polypedilum and Rheotanytarsus) were identified as associated taxa. The best-supported model explained 42.6% of the total variance in the abundance of associated taxa. This model combined local and landscape environmental filters and spatial variables (which were derived from eigenfunction analysis). However, the model with local filters and spatial variables also had a good chance of being selected as the best model. 5. Standardised partial regression coefficients of local and landscape filters, including spatial variables, derived from model averaging allowed an estimation of which variables were best correlated with the abundance of associated taxa. In general, the abundance of the associated genera tended to be lower in streams characterised by a high percentage of forest cover (landscape scale), lower proportion of muddy substrata and high values of pH and conductivity (local scale). 6. Overall, our main result adds to the increasing number of studies that have indicated the importance of local and landscape variables, as well as the spatial relationships among sampling sites, for explaining aquatic insect community patterns in streams. Furthermore, our findings open new possibilities for the elimination of redundant data in the assessment of anthropogenic impacts on tropical streams.

Evolutionary history of Ramphastos toucans: Molecular phylogenetics, temporal diversification, and biogeography

The toucan genus Ramphastos (Piciformes: Ramphastidae) has been a model in the formulation of Neotropical paleobiogeographic hypotheses. Weckstein (2005) reported on the phylogenetic history of this genus based on three mitochondrial genes, but some relationships were weakly supported and one of the subspecies of R. vitellinus (citreolaemus) was unsampled. This study expands on Weckstein (2005) by adding more DNA sequence data (including a nuclear marker) and more samples, including R v. citreolaemus. Maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood, and Bayesian methods recovered similar trees, with nodes showing high support. A monophyletic R. vitellinus complex was strongly supported as the sister-group to R. brevis. The results also confirmed that the southeastern and northern populations of R. vitellinus ariel are paraphyletic. X v. citreolaemus is sister to the Amazonian subspecies of the vitellinus complex. Using three protein-coding genes (COI, cytochrome-b and ND2) and interval-calibrated nodes under a Bayesian relaxed-clock framework, we infer that ramphastid genera originated in the middle Miocene to early Pliocene, Ramphastos species originated between late Miocene and early Pleistocene, and intra-specific divergences took place throughout the Pleistocene. Parsimony-based reconstruction of ancestral areas indicated that evolution of the four trans-Andean Ramphastos taxa (R. v. citreolaemus, R. a. swainsonii, R. brevis and R. sulfuratus) was associated with four independent dispersals from the cis-Andean region. The last pulse of Andean uplift may have been important for the evolution of R. sulfuratus, whereas the origin of the other trans-Andean Ramphastos taxa is consistent with vicariance due to drying events in the lowland forests north of the Andes. Estimated rates of molecular evolution were higher than the ""standard"" bird rate of 2% substitutions/site/million years for two of the three genes analyzed (cytochrome-b and ND2). (C) 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Chloroplast microsatellite markers for the Neotropical orchid genus Epidendrum, and cross-amplification in other Laeliinae species (Orchidaceae)

One of the most significant challenges confronting orchid researchers is the lack of specific molecular markers, mainly for species in the Neotropics. Here we report the first set of specific chloroplast microsatellite primers (cpSSR) developed for Neotropical orchids. In total, nine polymorphic cpSSR loci were isolated and characterized in four species occurring in the Brazilian Atlantic Rainforest: Epidendrum cinnabarinum, E. denticulatum, E. fulgens and E. puniceoluteum. Levels of intraspecific polymorphism were characterized using two populations for each species, with 13-20 individuals each. Allele numbers varied from two to three per locus, while the number of haplotypes ranged from three to six per species. Extensive differentiation among the taxa was detected. All markers were successfully cross-amplified in eight other different genera. These cpSSRs markers will enable novel insights into the evolution of this important Neotropical genus.

The combined effect of copper and low pH on antioxidant defenses and biochemical parameters in neotropical fish pacu, Piaractus mesopotamicus (Holmberg, 1887)

Copper sulfate is widely used in aquaculture. Exposure to this compound can be harmful to fish, resulting in oxidative metabolism alterations and gill tissue damage. Pacu, Piaractus mesopotamicus, (wt = 43.4 +/- A 3.35 g) were distributed in experimental tanks (n = 10; 180 l) and exposed for 48 h to control (without copper addition), 0.4Cu (0.4 mg l(-1)), 0CupH (without copper addition, pH = 5.0) and 0.4CupH (0.4 mg l(-1), pH = 5.0). In liver and red muscle, the superoxide dismutase (SOD) was responsive to the increases in the aquatic copper. The plasmatic intermediary metabolites and hematological variables in the fish of group 0.4Cu were similar to those of the control group. Conversely, the exposure to 0.4CupH caused an increase in the plasmatic lactate, number of red blood cells (RBC) and hemoglobin (Hb). Plasmatic copper concentration [Cu(p)] increased in group 0.4Cu and 0.4CupH, which is higher in group 0.4CupH, suggests an effect of water pH on the absorbed copper. Exposure to 0.4Cu and 0.4CupH resulted in a reduction in the Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase activity and an increase in metallothionein (MT) in the gills. Exposure to 0CupH caused a decrease in glucose and pyruvate concentrations and an increase in RBC, Hb, and the branchial Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase activity. These responses suggest that the fish triggered mechanisms to revert the blood acidosis, save energy and increase the oxygen uptake. MT was an effective biomarker, responding to copper in different pHs and dissolved oxygen. Combined-factors caused more significant disturbance in the biomarkers than single-factors.