Serpa cheese: technological, biochemical and microbiological characterisation of a PDO ewe's milk cheese coagulated with Cynara cardunculus L

Portugal has a strong tradition of cheesemaking from raw ewe's milk; most of these cheeses are still made on a traditional farmhouse scale. Their production is protected by Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) but the specific biochemical aspects of the majority still need to be characterised. Two different cheesemaking procedures, traditional and semi-industrial, were compared technologically, biochemically and microbiologically. It was observed that, despite the highly significant difference between artisanal and semi-industrial cheeses (P < 0.001), both products were within the limits of national regulations for most parameters except maturation temperature, humidity and the value for the maturation index. Although the present study was not fully representative of the region, the results obtained suggest that the specific regulations for Serpa cheese should be revised and that other parameters, such as moisture and salt-in-moisture content, which are very much dependent on the cheesemaking process, should be included in order to characterise better this traditional cheese.

Cheesemaking with vegetable coagulants - the use of Cynara L. for the production of ovine milk cheeses

This paper reviews the use of plant extracts as vegetable coagulants for cheesemaking. It covers the plants used as sources of coagulants, with a historical overview and particular emphasis on Cynara species. The genus Cynara L., its composition, milk clotting and proteolytic enzymes (cardosins) and their specificity towards peptide linkages are also described. Cheeses produced in the Iberian Peninsula using Cynara L. as coagulant are documented. Cynara L. is still the most used vegetable coagulant in cheesemaking, and also the most investigated. However, much work remains to be done to understand its action during cheese maturation and further characterization.

Reducing fouling during UHT treatment of goat's milk

Whole fresh goat's milk was heat treated at 135 degrees C for 4 s using a miniature UHT plant. The temperature of the milk in the preheating and sterilizer sections, and the milk flow rate were monitored to evaluate the overall heat transfer coefficient (OHTC). The decrease in OHTC was used to estimate the extent of fouling. Goat's milk fouled very quickly and run times of the UHT plant were short. The use of sodium hexametaphosphate, trisodium citrate and cation exchange resins to reduce ionic calcium prior to UHT processing, increased the pH and alcohol stability of the milk and markedly increased the run time of the UHT plant.

Selenium supplementation of lactating dairy cows: effects on milk production and total selenium content and speciation in blood, milk and cheese

Forty multiparous Holstein cows were used in a 16-week continuous design study to determine the effects of either selenium (Se) source, selenised yeast (SY) (derived from a specific strain of Saccharomyces cerevisiae CNCM 1-3060) or sodium selenite (SS), or Se inclusion rate in the form of SY in the diets of lactating dairy cows on the Se concentration and speciation in blood, milk and cheese. Cows received ad libitum a total mixed ration (TMR) with a 1 : 1 forage: concentrate ratio on a dry matter (DM) basis. There were four diets (T-1 to T-4), which differed only in either source or dose of Se additive. Estimated total dietary Se for T, (no supplement), T-2 (SS), T-3 (SY) and T-4 (SY) was 0.16, 0.30, 0.30 and 0.45 mg/kg DM, respectively. Blood and milk samples were taken at 28-day intervals and at each time point there were positive linear effects of Se in the form of SY on the Se concentration in blood and milk. At day 112 blood and milk Se values for T-1 to T-4 were 177, 208, 248 and 279 +/- 6.6 and 24, 38, 57 and 72 +/- 3.7 ng/g fresh material, respectively, and indicate improved uptake and incorporation of Se from SY. In whole blood, selenocysteine (SeCys) was the main selenised amino acid and the concentration of selenomethionine (SeMet) increased with the increasing inclusion rate of SY In milk, there were no marked treatment effects on the SeCys content, but Se source had a marked effect on the concentration of SeMet. At day 112 replacing SS (T-2) with SY (T-3) increased the SeMet concentration of milk from 36 to 111 ng Se/g and its concentration increased further to 157ng Se/g dried sample as the inclusion rate of SY increased further (T-4) to provide 0.45 mg Se/kg TMR. Neither Se source nor inclusion rate affected the keeping quality of milk. At day 112 milk from T-1, T-2 and T-3 was made into a hard cheese and Se source had a marked effect on total Se and the concentration of total Se comprised as either SeMet or SeCys. Replacing SS (T-2) with SY (T-3) increased total Se, SeMet and SeCys content in cheese from 180 to 340 ng Se/g, 57 to 153 ng Se/g and 52 to 92 ng Se/g dried sample, respectively. The use of SY to produce food products with enhanced Se content as a means of meeting the Se requirements is discussed

Alkaline phosphatase activity in pasteurized milk: a quantitative comparison of Fluorophos and colourimetric procedures

Fluorophos and colourimetric procedures for alkaline phosphatase (ALP) testing were compared using milk with raw milk additions, purified bovine ALP additions and heat treatments. Repeatability was between 0.9% and 10.1% for Fluorophos, 3.5% and 46.1% for the Aschaffenburg and Mullen (A&M) procedure and 4.4% and 8.8% for the Scharer rapid test. Linearity (R-2) using raw milk addition was 0.96 between Fluorophos and the Scharer procedure. Between the Fluorophos and the A&M procedures, R-2 values were 0.98, 0.99 and 0.98 for raw milk additions, bovine ALP additions and heat treatments respectively. Fluorophos showed greater sensitivity and was both faster and simpler to perform.

Effects of calcium-chelating agents and pasteurisation on certain properties of calcium-fortified soy milk

Addition of 25 mM calcium chloride to soy milk reduced pH, increased ionic calcium and caused it to coagulate. The effects of different chelating agents were investigated on selected physicochemical properties of soy milk and on preventing coagulation. The soy milks were then pasteurised to examine how heat treatment changed some of these properties as well as to evaluate their effects on heat stability. Sediment formation and susceptibility to coagulation could be reduced by decreasing ionic calcium and increasing pH. To achieve this, the most effective chelating agents were tri-sodium citrate and disodium hydrogen phosphate. These chelating agents also reduce absolute viscosity and particle size. Sodium hexa meta phosphate was also effective, but less so; it reduced ionic calcium but had a less noticeable effect on pH. The disodium salt of ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid was not effective, as it decreased the pH of soy milk. Ionic calcium and pH are useful indicators of heat stability of calcium-fortified soy beverages. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Evaluation of milk urea nitrogen as a diagnostic of protein feeding

An evaluation of milk urea nitrogen (MUN) as a diagnostic of protein feeding in dairy cows was performed using mean treatment data (n = 306) from 50 production trials conducted in Finland (n = 48) and Sweden (n = 2). Data were used to assess the effects of diet composition and certain animal characteristics on MUN and to derive relationships between MUN and the efficiency of N utilization for milk production and urinary N excretion. Relationships were developed using regression analysis based on either models of fixed factors or using mixed models that account for between-experiment variations. Dietary crude protein (CP) content was the best single predictor of MUN and accounted for proportionately 0.778 of total variance [ MUN (mg/dL) = -14.2 + 0.17 x dietary CP content (g/kg dry matter)]. The proportion of variation explained by this relationship increased to 0.952 when a mixed model including the random effects of study was used, but both the intercept and slope remained unchanged. Use of rumen degradable CP concentration in excess of predicted requirements, or the ratio of dietary CP to metabolizable energy as single predictors, did not explain more of the variation in MUN (R-2 = 0.767 or 0.778, respectively) than dietary CP content. Inclusion of other dietary factors with dietary CP content in bivariate models resulted in only marginally better predictions of MUN (R-2 = 0.785 to 0.804). Closer relationships existed between MUN and dietary factors when nutrients (CP to metabolizable energy) were expressed as concentrations in the diet, rather than absolute intakes. Furthermore, both MUN and MUN secretion (g/d) provided more accurate predictions of urinary N excretion (R-2 = 0.787 and 0.835, respectively) than measurements of the efficiency of N utilization for milk production (R-2 = 0.769). It is concluded that dietary CP content is the most important nutritional factor influencing MUN, and that measurements of MUN can be utilized as a diagnostic of protein feeding in the dairy cow and used to predict urinary N excretion.

Assessment of the presence of Salmonella spp. in Egyptian dairy products using various detection media

Aims: To make a preliminary assessment of the incidence of Salmonella in Egyptian dairy products, and to investigate the effectiveness of various protocols for the detection of the pathogen in these products. Methods and Results: Samples of milk and related dairy products were randomly collected from local markets and examined for the presence of Salmonella. While most samples were free of the organism, isolates of Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhimurium PT 8 could be recovered from 'matared' cream specimens. These isolates were susceptible to antibiotics usually used to challenge infections caused by Salmonella. A combination of buffered peptone water, Muller-Kauffman tetrathionate broth, and brilliant green phenol red agar gave the best results for the detection of the pathogen. Selenite-cystine broth and Hektoen enteric agar were ineffective as an enrichment and a plating medium, respectively, in the isolation of Salmonella. A modified identification strategy that reduces the burden of serological testing of presumptive isolates is proposed. Conclusions, Significance and Impact of the Study: 'Matared' cream could be a vehicle for transmitting Salmonella. Using the above combination of media, beside the suggested modified confirmatory procedure, should increase the effectiveness and ease of the detection of Salmonella in milk and dairy products.

Factors affecting the pressure resistance of some Campylobacter species

Aims: To compare pressure resistance between strains of Campylobacter jejuni, Campylobacter coli, Campylobacter lari and Campylobacter fetus, and to investigate the effect of suspending medium on pressure resistance of sensitive and more resistant strains. Methods and Results: Six strains of C. jejuni and four each of C. coli, C. lari and C. fetus were pressure treated for 10 min at 200 and 300 MPa. Individual strains varied widely in pressure resistance but there were no significant differences between the species C. jejuni, C. coli and C. lari. Campylobacter fetus was significantly more pressure sensitive than the other three species. The pressure resistance of C. jejuni cultures reached a maximum at 16-18 h on entry into stationary phase then declined to a minimum at 75 h before increasing once more. Milk was more baroprotective than water, broth or chicken slurry but did not prevent inactivation even of a resistant strain at 400 MPa. Conclusions: Pressure resistance varies considerably between species of Campylobacter and among strains within a species, and survival after a pressure challenge will be markedly influenced by culture age and food matrix. Significance and Impact of the Study: Despite the strain variation in pressure resistance and protective effects of food, Campylobacter sp. do not present a particular problem for pressure processing.

Measurement of ionic calcium in milk

There are many reports in the literature regarding the effects of ionic calcium on reactions related to casein micelle stability, such as heat stability, ethanol stability and susceptibility to gelation, sediment formation and fouling. However, experimental evidence supporting these assertions is much less readily available. This paper evaluates three selective ion electrode systems for measuring ionic calcium directly in milk as well as looking at the effects on pH reduction and addition of calcium chloride. The best electrode system was the Ciba Corning 634 system, which was designed for blood but has been modified for milk. This was found to be reproducible and stable when calibrated daily and allowed direct measurements to be taken on milk in 70 s. This has been found to perform well now for 3 years. The other systems were not so useful, as they took longer to stabilize, but may be useful for higher ionic calcium concentrations, which are found in acidified milk products. Reducing the pH increased ionic calcium and reduced ethanol stability. Calcium chloride addition reduced pH, increased ionic calcium and reduced the ethanol stability. Readjusting the pH to its value before calcium addition reduced the ionic calcium, but not back to its original value. Milks from individual cows showed wide variations in their ionic calcium concentrations. This establishes the methodology for a more detailed investigation on measurement of ionic calcium in milks from individual cows and from bulk milks, to allow a better understanding of its role in casein micelle stability.

Calcium removal from milk by ion exchange

Calcium removal, using Duolite C433 ion exchange resin, was faster from permeate than from milk. Almost all calcium could be removed, suggesting a fairly rapid conversion from both soluble calcium phosphate and from micellar calcium to ionic calcium. Calcium reduction from milk is accompanied by an increase in pH, a reduction in ionic calcium, an increase in ethanol stability and an increase in the rennet coagulation time. There is a gradual increase in the average casein micelle size with calcium removal, up to a point where the micelle size increases dramatically. Zeta potential becomes more negative with calcium removal. At higher levels of calcium removal, the changes are not reversible, on reducing pH to its original value. For goat's milk, over the range 0-20% total calcium removal, relatively small reductions in total calcium gave rise to proportionally larger reductions in ionic calcium in a ratio of about 1:3.2.

Assessment of the quality of cottage cheese produced from standard and protein-fortified skim milk

The effects of milk protein fortification on the texture and microstructure of cottage cheese curd were evaluated. Protein powder (92.6% protein) was added to the skim milk at a level of 0.4% (w/w) to produce curds. Control curds with no protein powder addition were also produced. These curds were analysed for differences in yield, total solids, curd size, texture and structure. It was found that the addition of protein powder contributed to a significant yield increase, which can be attributed to increased water retention, with better curd size distribution. Control curds were firmer than the fortified curds and the structure showed less open-pore structure as revealed by electron microscopy. However, the addition of dressing masked the textural differences, and a sensory panel was unable to distinguish between cheeses produced from fortified milk and controls.