Sequence and Copy Number Analyses of HEXB Gene in Patients Affected by Sandhoff Disease: Functional Characterization of 9 Novel Sequence Variants

Sandhoff disease (SD) is a lysosomal disorder caused by mutations in the HEXB gene. To date, 43 mutations of HEXB have been described, including 3 large deletions. Here, we have characterized 14 unrelated SD patients and developed a Multiplex Ligation-dependent Probe Amplification (MLPA) assay to investigate the presence of large HEXB deletions. Overall, we identified 16 alleles, 9 of which were novel, including 4 sequence variation leading to aminoacid changes [c.626C>T (p.T209I), c.634C>A (p.H212N), c.926G>T (p.C309F), c.1451G>A (p.G484E)] 3 intronic mutations (c.1082+5G>A, c.1242+1G>A, c.1169+5G>A), 1 nonsense mutation c.146C>A (p.S49X) and 1 small in-frame deletion c.1260_1265delAGTTGA (p.V421_E422del). Using the new MLPA assay, 2 previously described deletions were identified. In vitro expression studies showed that proteins bearing aminoacid changes p.T209I and p.G484E presented a very low or absent activity, while proteins bearing the p.H212N and p.C309F changes retained a significant residual activity. The detrimental effect of the 3 novel intronic mutations on the HEXB mRNA processing was demonstrated using a minigene assay. Unprecedentedly, minigene studies revealed the presence of a novel alternative spliced HEXB mRNA variant also present in normal cells. In conclusion, we provided new insights into the molecular basis of SD and validated an MLPA assay for detecting large HEXB deletions.

Combined snake venomics and venom gland transcriptomic analysis of Bothropoides pauloensis

Unraveling the repertoire of venom toxins of Bothropoides pauloensis was assessed by snake venomics and venom gland transcriptomic surveys. Both approaches yielded converging overall figures, pointing to metalloproteinases (similar to 37%), PLA(2)s (26-32%), and vasoactive (bradykinin-potentiating) peptides (12-17%) as the major toxin classes. The high occurrence of SVMPs, PLA(2) molecules, vasoactive peptides, along with serine proteinases, explains the local and systemic effects observed in envenomations by B. pauloensis. Minor (<3%) C-type lectin, serine proteinase, L-amino acid oxidase, nerve growth factor, and CRISP molecules were also identified in the transcriptome and the proteome. Low abundance (0.3%) EST singletons coding for vascular endothelial growth factor (svVEGF), ohanin, hyaluronidase, and 5' nucleotidase were found only in the venom gland cDNA library. At the molecular level, the transcriptomic and proteomic datasets display low compositional concordance. In particular, although there is good agreement between transcriptome and proteome in the identity of BPPs, PLA(2) molecules and L-amino acid oxidase, both datasets strongly depart in their C-type lectin and SVMP complements. These data support the view that venom composition is influenced by transcriptional and translational mechanisms and emphasize the value of combining proteomic and transcriptomic approaches to acquire a more complete understanding of the toxinological profile and natural history of the snake venom. (C) 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

The Use of Ultrasonography to Study Teratogenicity in Ruminants: Evaluation of Ipomoea carnea in Goats

Background: Ipomoea carnea (I. carnea) is a poisonous plant found in Brazil and other tropical countries that often poison livestock. The plant contains the alkaloids calystegines and mainly swainsonine, which inhibit cellular enzymes and cause systematic cell death. The objective of this study was to evaluate the perinatal effects of I. carnea in goats. Methods: Forty-seven pregnant goats were randomly allocated into 5 treatment groups and given the following doses (g/kg BW) of I. carnea: 0 (IC0), 1.0 (IC1), 3.0 (IC3), 5.0 (IC5) and 7.5 (IC7). The treatment animals were given fresh I. carnea from day 27 of gestation to parturition. Weight gains and serum biochemistry were evaluated. Fetuses were evaluated using ultrasonographic measurements. Results: Goats from the IC7 group showed clinical signs of poisoning. Ultrasound examination revealed that I. carnea feeding in all treatment groups reduced fetal movement compared to the controls. There was an increase in the total number of birth defects (retrognathia and arthrogyposis) in the IC7 and IC5 groups compared to the controls. Conclusion: The results show that I. carnea has teratogenic potential in goats. In addition, ultrasounds were useful in evaluating fetotoxicity and teratogenicity. Birth Defects Res (Part B) 00:17, 2012. (c) 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Purification of bromelain from pineapple wastes by ethanol precipitation

Bromelain is an aqueous extract of pineapple that contains a complex mixture of proteases and non-protease components. These enzymes perform an important role in proteolytic modulation of the cellular matrix in numerous physiologic processes, including anti-inflammatory, anti-thrombotic and fibrinolytic functions. Due to the scale of global production of pineapple (Ananas comosus L.), and the high percentage of waste generated in their cultivation and processing, several studies have been conducted on the recovery of bromelain. The aim of this study was to purify bromelain from pineapple wastes using an easy-to-scale-up process of precipitation by ethanol. The results showed that bromelain was recovered by using ethanol at concentrations of 30% and 70%, in which a purification factor of 2.28 fold was achieved, and yielded more than 98% of the total enzymatic activity. This enzyme proved to be susceptible to denaturation after the lyophilization process. However, by using 10% (w/v) glucose as a cryoprotector, it was possible to preserve 90% of the original enzymatic activity. The efficiency of the purification process was confirmed by SDS-PAGE, and native-PAGE electrophoresis, fluorimetry, circular dichroism and FTIR analyzes, showing that this method could be used to obtain highly purified and structurally stable bromelain. (C) 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

New mutations in the GLA gene in Brazilian families with Fabry disease

Fabry disease (FD) is an X-linked inborn error of glycosphingolipid catabolism that results from mutations in the alpha-galactosidase A (GLA) gene. Evaluating the enzymatic activity in male individuals usually performs the diagnosis of the disease, but in female carriers the diagnosis based only on enzyme assays is often inconclusive. In this work, we analyzed 568 individuals from 102 families with suspect of FD. Overall, 51 families presented 38 alterations in the GLA gene, among which 19 were not previously reported in literature. The alterations included 17 missense mutations, 7 nonsense mutations, 7 deletions, 6 insertions and 1 in the splice site. Six alterations (R112C, R118C, R220X, R227X, R342Q and R356W) occurred at CpG dinucleotides. Five mutations not previously described in the literature (A156D, K237X, A292V, I317S, c.1177_1178insG) were correlated with low GLA enzyme activity and with prediction of molecular damages. From the 13 deletions and insertions, 7 occurred in exons 6 or 7 (54%) and 11 led to the formation of a stop codon. The present study highlights the detection of new genomic alterations in the GLA gene in the Brazilian population, facilitating the selection of patients for recombinant enzyme-replacement trials and offering the possibility to perform prenatal diagnosis. Journal of Human Genetics (2012) 57, 347-351; doi:10.1038/jhg.2012.32; published online 3 May 2012

Generation of a Chinese Hamster Ovary Cell Line Producing Recombinant Human Glucocerebrosidase

Impaired activity of the lysosomal enzyme glucocerebrosidase (GCR) results in the inherited metabolic disorder known as Gaucher disease. Current treatment consists of enzyme replacement therapy by administration of exogenous GCR. Although effective, it is exceptionally expensive, and patients worldwide have a limited access to this medicine. In Brazil, the public healthcare system provides the drug free of charge for all Gaucher's patients, which reaches the order of $ 84million per year. However, the production of GCR by public institutions in Brazil would reduce significantly the therapy costs. Here, we describe a robust protocol for the generation of a cell line producing recombinant human GCR. The protein was expressed in CHO-DXB11 (dhfr(-)) cells after stable transfection and gene amplification with methotrexate. As expected, glycosylated GCR was detected by immunoblotting assay both as cell-associated (similar to 64 and 59 kDa) and secreted (63-69 kDa) form. Analysis of subclones allowed the selection of stable CHO cells producing a secreted functional enzyme, with a calculated productivity of 5.14 pg/cell/day for the highest producer. Although being laborious, traditionalmethods of screening high-producing recombinant cellsmay represent a valuable alternative to generate expensive biopharmaceuticals in countries with limited resources.

Molecular cloning and insecticidal effect of Inga laurina trypsin inhibitor on Diatraea saccharalis and Heliothis virescens

Native Inga laurina (Fabaceae) trypsin inhibitor (ILTI) was tested for anti-insect activity against Diatraea saccharalis and Heliothis virescens larvae. The addition of 0.1% ILTI to the diet of D. saccharalis did not alter larval survival but decreased larval weight by 51%. The H. virescens larvae that were fed a diet containing 0.5% ILTI showed an 84% decrease in weight. ILTI was not digested by the midgut proteinases of either species of larvae. The trypsin levels were reduced by 55.3% in the feces of D. saccharalis and increased by 24.1% in the feces of H. virescens. The trypsin activity in both species fed with ILTI was sensitive to the inhibitor, suggesting that no novel proteinase resistant to ILTI was induced. Additionally, ILTI exhibited inhibitory activity against the proteinases present in the larval midgut of different species of Lepidoptera. The organization of the ilti gene was elucidated by analyzing its corresponding genomic sequence. The recombinant ILTI protein (reILTI) was expressed and purified, and its efficacy was evaluated. Both native ILTI and reILTI exhibited a similar strong inhibitory effect on bovine trypsin activity. These results suggest that ILTI presents insecticidal properties against both insects and may thus be a useful tool in the genetic engineering of plants. (c) 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Niemann-Pick disease type C symptomatology: an expert-based clinical description

Niemann-Pick disease type C (NP-C) is a rare, progressive, irreversible disease leading to disabling neurological manifestations and premature death. The estimated disease incidence is 1:120,000 live births, but this likely represents an underestimate, as the disease may be under-diagnosed due to its highly heterogeneous presentation. NP-C is characterised by visceral, neurological and psychiatric manifestations that are not specific to the disease and that can be found in other conditions. The aim of this review is to provide non-specialists with an expert-based, detailed description of NP-C signs and symptoms, including how they present in patients and how they can be assessed. Early disease detection should rely on seeking a combination of signs and symptoms, rather than isolated findings. Examples of combinations which are strongly suggestive of NP-C include: splenomegaly and vertical supranuclear gaze palsy (VSGP); splenomegaly and clumsiness; splenomegaly and schizophrenia-like psychosis; psychotic symptoms and cognitive decline; and ataxia with dystonia, dysarthria/dysphagia and cognitive decline. VSGP is a hallmark of NP-C and becomes highly specific of the disease when it occurs in combination with other manifestations (e.g. splenomegaly, ataxia). In young infants (<2 years), abnormal saccades may first manifest as slowing and shortening of upward saccades, long before gaze palsy onset. While visceral manifestations tend to predominate during the perinatal and infantile period (2 months–6 years of age), neurological and psychiatric involvement is more prominent during the juvenile/adult period (>6 years of age). Psychosis in NP-C is atypical and variably responsive to treatment. Progressive cognitive decline, which always occurs in patients with NP-C, manifests as memory and executive impairment in juvenile/adult patients. Disease prognosis mainly correlates with the age at onset of the neurological signs, with early-onset forms progressing faster. Therefore, a detailed and descriptive picture of NP-C signs and symptoms may help improve disease detection and early diagnosis, so that therapy with miglustat (Zavesca®), the only available treatment approved to date, can be started as soon as neurological symptoms appear, in order to slow disease progression.

Valutazione dell'attività delle metalloproteinasi 2 e 9 nelle urine e nel tessuto renale di cani normali e affetti da nefropatia

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) are a large family of proteinases that remodel extracellular matrix (ECM) component. Recent data suggest a role for MMPs in a number of renal pathophysiologies, associated with an imbalance of ECM syntesis and degradation, which may result in an accumulation of ECM molecules and renal fibrosis. The aim of this study is to elucidate the role of pro and activated MMP-2 and 9 in urine and renal tissue of healty and nephropatic dogs. Renal tissue of 8 healty dogs and either renal tissue and urine of 9 nephropatic dogs was collected and analize using zimographic method, which is been validated in this study. Either MMPs zimographic bands were present in almost all samples. In particular, pro and activated MMP-9 zimographic bands were poorly represent in renal tissue of healty dogs, whereas were very represent in nephropatic dogs. Pro and activated MMP-2 was present in either tissue of healty and nephropatic dogs. In urine of nephropatic dogs, pro and activated MMP-9 was more evident than MMP-2, but there was not correlaction with renal tissue levels, therefore urine levels of MMPs have poorly usefulness in diagnostic pratice. The values of Pro and activated MMP-9 in nephropatic dogs were significantly higher compared with normal dogs (p < 0,05), whereas there was not statistically meaningful for Pro and activated MMP-2. In conclusion, in this study we have validated a zimographic method for renal tissue of dogs and we have illustrated the changes in nephropatic dogs, which may be useful for further study.

Identificazione delle Lamine di tipo A come nuovi substrati della protein chinasi Akt/PKB

Akt (also called PKB) is a 63 kDa serine/threonine kinase involved in promotion of cell survival, proliferation a nd metabolic responses downstream the phosphoinositide-3-kinase (PI 3-kinase) signaling pathway. In resting cells, Akt is a predominantly cytosolic enzyme; however generation of PI 3-kinase lipid products recruits Akt to the plasma membrane, resulting in a conformational change which confers full enzymatic activity through the phosphorylation of the membrane-bound protein at two residues, Thr308, and Ser473. Activated Akt redistributes to cytoplasm and nucleus, where phosphorylation of specific substrates occurs. Both the presence and the activity of Akt in the nucleus have been described. An interesting mechanism that mediates nuclear translocation of Akt has been described in human mature T-cell leukemia: the product of TCL1 gene, Tcl1, interacts with the PH domain of phosphorylated Akt, thus driving Akt to the nucleus. In this context, Tcl1 may act as a direct transporter of Akt or may contribute to the formation of a complex that promotes the transport of active Akt to the nucleus, where it can phosphorylate nuclear substrates. A well described nuclear substrate if Foxo. IGF-1 triggers phosphorylation of Foxo by Akt inside the nucleus, where phospho-Foxo associates to 14.3.3 proteins that, in turn, promote its export to the cytoplasm where it is sequestered. Remarkably, Foxo phosphorylation by Akt has been shown to be a crucial event in Akt-dependent myogenesis. However, most Akt nuclear substrates have so far remained elusive, as well as nuclear Akt functions. This lack of information prompted us to undertake a search of substrates of Akt in the nucleus, by the combined use of 2D-separation/mass spectrometry and anti-Akt-phosphosubstrate antibody. This study presents evidence of A-type lamins as novel nuclear substrates of Akt. Lamins are type V intermediate filaments proteins found in the nucleus of higher eukaryotes where, together with lamin-binding proteins, they form the lamina at the nuclear envelope, providing mechanical stability for the nuclear membrane. By coimmunoprecipitation, it is demonstrated here that endogenous lamin A and Akt interact, and that A-type lamins are phosphorylated by Akt both in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, by phosphoaminoacid analysis and mutagenesis, it is further demonstrated that Akt phosphorylates lamin A at Ser404, and, more importantly, that while lamin A/C phosphorylation is stable throughout the cell cycle, phosphorylation of the precursor prelamin A becomes detectable as cells enter the G2 phase, picking at G2/M. This study also shows that lamin phosphorylation by Akt creates a binding site for 14.3.3 adaptors which, in turn, promote prelamin A degradation. While this mechanism is in agreement with a general role of Akt in the regulation of a subset of its substrates, opposite to what has been described, degradation is not mediated through a ubiquitination and proteasomal mechanism but through a lysosomal pathway, as indicated by the reverting action of the lysosomal inhibitor cloroquine. Phosphorylation is a key event in the mitotic breakdown of the nuclear lamina. However, the kinases and the precise sites of phosphorylation are scarcely known. Therefore, these results represent an important breakthrough in this very significant but understudied area. The phosphorylation of the precursor protein prelamin A and its subsequent degradation at G2/M, when both the nuclear envelop and the nuclear lamina disassemble, can be view as part of a mechanism to dispose off the precursor that is not needed in this precise context. The recently reported finding that patients affected by Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy carry a mutation at Arg 401, in the Akt phosphorylation motif, open new perspective that warrant further investigation in this very important field.

Expression and cellular localization of Copper transporter 2 (Ctr2) in Mus musculus

The Ctr family is an essential part of the copper homeostasis machinery and its members share sequence homology and structural and functional features. Higher eukaryotes express two members of this family Ctr1 and Ctr2. Numerous structural and functional studies are available for Ctr1, the only high affinity Cu(I) transporter thus far identified. Ctr1 holigotrimers mediate cellular copper uptake and this protein was demonstrated to be essential for embryonic development and to play a crucial role in dietary copper acquisition. Instead very little is known about Ctr2, it bears structural homology to the yeast vacuolar copper transporter, which mediates mobilization of vacuolar copper stores. Recent studies using over-expressed epitope-tagged forms of human Ctr2 suggested a function as a low affinity copper transporter that can mediate either copper uptake from the extracellular environment or mobilization of lysosomal copper stores. Using an antibody that recognizes endogenous mouse Ctr2, we studied the expression and localization of endogenous mouse Ctr2 in cell culture and in mouse models to understand its regulation and function in copper homeostasis. By immunoblot we observed a regulation of mCtr2 protein levels in a copper and Ctr1 dependent way. Our observations in cells and transgenic mice suggest that lack of Ctr1 induces a strong downregulation of Ctr2 probably by a post-translational mechanism. By indirect immunofluorescence we observed an exclusive intracellular localization in a perinuclear compartment and no co-localization with lysosomal markers. Immunofluorescence experiments in Ctr1 null cells, supported by sequence analysis, suggest that lysosomes may play a role in mCtr2 biology not as resident compartment, but as a degradation site. In appendix a LC-mass method for analysis of algal biotoxins belonging to the family of PsP (paralytic shellfish poisoning) is described.

Charakterisierung des Rezeptors, des Aufnahmeweges und der Neutralisation humanpathogener Papillomviren

Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden Pseudovirionen mit gfp als Reportergen generiert und zur Charakterisierung verschiedener Aspekte der HPV-Infektion verwendet. Es konnte gezeigt werden, daß Heparansulfatproteoglykane für die Infektion mit HPV16- und HPV33-Pseudovirionen essentiell sind, da: (i) Heparin, nicht aber Chondroitin- oder Dermatansulfat die Infektion inhibiert, (ii) Heparinase I oder chloratbehandelte Zellen vollständig bzw. teilweise resistent gegen eine Infektion sind, (iii) monoklonale Antikörper Pseudovirionen neutralisieren, indem sie die Bindung an Heparin verhindern. Ein intakter C-Terminus des L1-Proteins ist für die Heparinbindung nicht notwendig. Alpha-6 Integrin ist kein obligater HPV-Rezeptor. Die Neutralisation gebundener Pseudovirionen durch ein neutralisierendes Antiserum einerseits und durch Heparin andererseits demonstriert, daß die Aufnahme von Pseudovirionen sehr langsam verläuft und daß die Bindung von einem heparinsensitiven zu einem heparinresistenten Zustand übergeht, möglicherweise unter Beteiligung weiterer Rezeptoren. Die Wirkung von verschiedenen Inhibitoren auf die Pseudoinfektion lassen schließen, daß Pseudovirionen über eine mikrofilamentabhängige und energieabhängige Endozytose mit anschließender Penetration durch saure Vesikel aufgenommen werden. Caveolen sind an der Aufnahme nicht beteiligt. Untersuchungen zur Neutralisation von HPV16-, HPV18- und HPV33-Pseudovirionen durch Antiseren gegen HPV16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 39 und 45 zeigen eine Kreuzneutralisation zwischen HPV31 und HPV33 einerseits und zwischen HPV18 und HPV45 andererseits.

Pharmaceutical residues in aquatic systems: mode of action and effects on mussel physiology

Pharmaceutical residues contaminate aquatic ecosystems as a result of their widespread human and veterinary usage. Since continuously released and not efficiently removed, certain pharmaceuticals exhibit pseudo-persistence thus generating concerns for the health of aquatic wildlife. This work aimed at assessing on mussels Mytilus galloprovincialis, under laboratory conditions, the effects of three pharmaceuticals, carbamazepine (antiepileptic), propranolol (β-blocker) and oxytetracycline (antibiotic), to evaluate if the human-based mode of action of these molecules is conserved in invertebrates. Furthermore, in the framework of the European MEECE Programme, mussels were exposed to oxytetracycline and copper at increasing temperatures, simulating variations due to climate changes. The effects of these compounds were assessed evaluating a battery of biomarkers, the expression of HSP70 proteins and changes in cAMP-related parameters. A decrease in lysosomal membrane stability, induction of oxidative stress, alterations of cAMP-dependent pathway and the induction of defense mechanisms were observed indicating the development of a stress syndrome, and a worsening in mussels health status. Data obtained in MEECE Programme confirmed that the toxicity of substances can be enhanced following changes in temperature. The alterations observed were obtained after exposure to pharmaceuticals at concentrations sometimes lower than those detected in the aquatic environment. Hence, further research is advisable regarding subtle effects of pharmaceuticals on non-target organisms. Furthermore, results obtained during a research stay in the laboratories of Cádiz University (Spain) are presented. The project aimed at measuring possible effects of polluted sediments in Algeciras Bay (Spain) and in Cádiz Bay, by assessing different physiological parameters in caged crabs Carcinus maenas and clams Ruditapes decussatus exposed in situ for 28 days. The neutral red retention assay was adapted to these species and proved to be a sensitive screening tool for the assessment of sediment quality.

Proteolyse des Amyloid-Vorläufer-Protein-verwandten APLP2 durch alpha-Sekretasen

Die im Laufe der Evolution konservierte Genfamilie des Amyloid-Vorläufer-Proteins APP beinhaltet sowohl bei der Maus als auch beim Menschen die beiden APP-ähnlichen ProteineAPLP1 und APLP2. Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, die proteolytische Prozessierung des APLP2 zu charakterisieren und die beteiligten Proteasen aufzuzeigen. Ausgehend von Stimulations- und Inhibitionsversuchen wurde die Metzincin-Familie der Metalloproteinasen als APLP2-Proteasen identifiziert. Durch Überexpression von ADAM10 und TACE (ADAM17) konnten zwei wichtige Prozessierungs-Enzyme des APLP2 charakterisiert werden. Damit wurde zum ersten Mal eine α-Sekretase-ähnliche Enzymaktivität analog zu der Spaltung des APP an APLP2 beschrieben. Untersuchungen an ADAM10-transgenen Mäusen bestätigten die proteolytische Prozessierung des APLP2 in vivo. Durch die Untersuchung neuronaler Differenzierung mit Retinsäure und Apoptose in Neuroblastoma-Zellen gelang der Nachweis einer funktionellen Koregulation von APLP2 und seiner Protease ADAM10, die zu einer erhöhten Freisetzung des neurotrophen löslichen APLP2 bei der Differenzierung und zu einer Reduktion bei Apoptose führt. In den Gehirnen von Alzheimer-Patienten gibt es sowohl Hinweise auf einen gestörten Vitamin A Metabolismus als auch auf verstärkte apoptotische Vorgänge, so dass hier erstmalig eine Verknüpfung der APLP2-Proteolyse mit zwei pathogenen Prozessen des Morbus Alzheimergezeigt werden konnten. Eine therapeutische Aktivierung der α-Sekretasen hätte die verstärkte Bildung von neurotrophem APPsα und APLP2s zur Folge. Es bestünde jedoch gleichzeitig die Gefahr von Nebenwirkungen durch die Spaltung weiterer Substrate wie der Notch-Rezeptoren oder des Prionenproteins. In dieser Arbeit konnte gezeigt werden, dass Notch-1 prinzipiell ein Substrat für ADAM10 darstellt, die Auswirkungen in vivo jedoch begrenzt und altersabhängig sind. Für das Prionenprotein ergab sich keine direkte Beeinflussung durch eine Spaltung, sondern vielmehr eine Expressionsminderung durch die Überexpression von ADAM10 in Mäusen. Die Inkubationszeit bei der Prionenerkrankung hängt von der Menge des endogenen zellulären Prionenproteins ab. Daher ergibt sich aus einer Steigerung der α-Sekretase-Aktivität eine potentielle Prävention gegenüber einer Infektion mit der pathogenen Scrapie-Form des Prionenproteins.

Substratversorgung von NO-Synthasen

Resultate dieser Arbeit zeigen, dass endotheliale und neuronale NO-Synthasen (eNOS und nNOS) ihr Substrat Arginin nicht ausschließlich aus extrazellulären, sondern auch aus intrazellulären Quellen beziehen. Das Substrat aus den intrazellulären Quellen scheint nicht über Membrantransporter in den Extrazellulärraum gelangen zu können. Dies deutet darauf hin, dass eine enge Assoziation der Arginin-bereitstellenden Enzyme mit eNOS bzw. nNOS vorliegen könnte. Dadurch würde das durch diese Enzyme generierte Arginin direkt an die NOS weitergereicht und nicht über Transporter gegen andere basische Aminosäuren (AS) im Extrazellulärraum ausgetauscht werden. Eine intrazelluläre Substrat-Quelle besteht aus dem so genannten „Recycling“, der Umwandlung des bei der NO-Synthese entstehenden Citrullins in Arginin. Eine Kopplung von Arginin-bereitstellenden „Recycling“-Enzymen mit NOS wird in Endothelzellen und teilweise auch in TGW-nu-I Neuroblastomzellen beobachtet, nicht jedoch in A673 Neuroepitheliomzellen. Die Kopplung scheint daher vom Zelltyp abhängig zu sein. Das zur Arginin-Regeneration benötigte Citrullin kann allen untersuchten Zellen durch den Austausch mit spezifischen neutralen AS, die ausschließlich zum Substratprofil des System N Transporters SN1 passen, entzogen werden. Die Anwesenheit von SN1-Substraten im Extrazellulärraum führt daher indirekt zu einer Depletion der Recycling-Quelle. SN1 mRNA ist in allen untersuchten Zellen nachweisbar. Aus Protein-Abbau stammendes Arginin stellt den zweiten Teil der intrazellulären Arginin-Quelle dar. Dieser ist in allen untersuchten eNOS- oder nNOS exprimierenden Zellen vorhanden. Das Arginin stammt dabei sowohl aus lysosomalem als auch proteasomalen Proteinabbau, wie der Einsatz spezifischer Inhibitoren zeigt. Extrazelluläres Histidin (aber keine andere Aminosäure) kann diese Arginin-Quelle depletieren. Wir vermuten deshalb, dass Histidin über den Peptid-Histidin-Transporter PHT1, der in allen untersuchten Zellen stark exprimiert ist, gegen die durch lysosomalen und proteasomalen Proteinabbau entstehenden Arginin-haltigen Di- und Tripeptide ausgetauscht wird. Der wichtigste endogene NOS-Inhibitor, asymmetrisches Dimethylarginin (ADMA), ein Marker für endotheliale Dysfunktion und Risikofaktor für kardiovaskuläre Erkrankungen, stammt ebenfalls aus Proteinabbau. Die Verfügbarkeit dieser intrazellulären Arginin-Quelle wird deshalb stark vom Methylierungsgrad des Arginins in den abgebauten Proteinen abhängen. Eine lokale ADMA-Anreicherung könnte eine Erklärung für das Arginin-Paradox sein, der unter pathophysiologischen Bedingungen beobachteten Verminderung der endothelialen NO-Synthese bei anscheinend ausreichenden intrazellulären Argininkonzentrationen. Da auch in neurodegenerativen Erkrankungen, wie Morbus Alzheimer, ADMA eine Rolle zu spielen scheint, könnte das Arginin-Paradox auch für die nNOS-vermittelte NO-Synthese von Bedeutung sein. Die Resultate demonstrieren, dass die Substratversorgung der beiden NOS-Isoformen nicht ausschließlich von kationischen Aminosäuretransportern abhängig ist, sondern auch von Transportern für neutrale Aminosäuren und Peptide, und außerdem von Arginin-bereitstellenden Enzymen. Der jeweilige Beitrag der verschiedenen Arginin-Quellen zur Substratversorgung der NOS ist daher abhängig vom Anteil der jeweiligen Aminosäuren und Peptide in der extrazellulären Flüssigkeit.