Study of the damage evolution of the concrete under freeze-thaw cycles using traditional and non-traditional techniques

Some experiments have been performed to investigate the cyclic freeze-thaw deterioration of concrete, using traditional and non-traditional techniques. Two concrete mixes, with different pore structure, were tested in order to compare the behavior of a freeze-thaw resistant concrete from one that is not. One of the concretes was air entrained, high content of cement and low w/c ratio, and the other one was a lower cement content and higher w/c ratio, without air-entraining agent. Concrete specimens were studied under cyclic freeze-thaw conditions according to UNE-CENT/TS 12390-9 test, using 3% NaCl solution as freezing medium (CDF test: Capillary Suction, De-icing agent and Freeze-thaw Test). The temperature and relative humidity were measured during the cycles inside the specimens using embedded sensors placed at different heights from the surface in contact with the de-icing agent solution. Strain gauges were used to measure the strain variations at the surface of the specimens. Also, measurements of ultrasonic pulse velocity through the concrete specimens were taken before, during, and after the freeze-thaw cycles. According to the CDF test, the failure of the non-air-entraining agent concrete was observed before 28 freeze-thaw cycles; contrariwise, the scaling of the air-entraining agent concrete was only 0.10 kg/m 2 after 28 cycles, versus 3.23 kg/m 2 in the deteriorated concrete, after 28 cycles. Similar behavior was observed on the strain measurements. The residual strain in the deteriorated concrete after 28 cycles was 1150 m versus 65 m, in the air-entraining agent concrete. By means of monitoring the changes of ultrasonic pulse velocity during the freeze-thaw cycles, the deterioration of the tested specimens were assessed

Influence of cement properties in the reaction rate and mechanical behavior of concrete with high fl y ash content

The use of fly ash (FA) as an admixture to concrete is broadly extended for two main reasons: the reduction of costs that supposes the substitution of cement and the micro structural changes motivated by the mineral admixture. Regarding this second point, there is a consensus that considers that the ash generates a more compact concrete and a reduction in the size of the pore. However, the measure in which this contributes to the pozzolanic activity or as filler is not well defined. There is also no justification to the influence of the physical parameters, fineness of the grain and free water, in its behavior. This work studies the use of FA as a partial substitute of the cement in concretes of different workability (dry and wet) and the influence in the reactivity of the ash. The concrete of dry consistency which serves as reference uses a cement dose of 250 Kg/m 3 and the concrete of fluid consistency utilized a dose of cement of 350 Kg/m 3 . Two trademark of Portland Cement Type 1 were used. The first reached the resistant class for its fineness of grain and the second one for its composition. Moreover, three doses of FA have been used, and the water/binder ratio was constant in all the mixtures. We have studied the mechanical properties and the micro-structure of the concretes by means of compressive strength tests, mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP) and thermal analysis (TA). The results of compressive strength tests allow us to observe that concrete mixtures with cements of the same classification and similar dosage of binder do not present the same mechanical behavior. These results show that the effective water/binder ratio has a major role in the development of the mechanical properties of concrete. The study of different dosages using TA, thermo-gravimetry and differential thermal analysis, revealed that the portlandite content is not restrictive in any of the dosages studied. Again, this proves that the rheology of the material influences the reaction rate and content of hydrated cement products. We conclude that the available free water is determinant in the efficiency of pozzolanic reaction. It is so that in accordance to the availability of free water, the ashes can react as an active admixture or simply change the porous distribution. The MIP shows concretes that do not exhibit significant changes in their mechanical behavior, but have suffered significant variation in their porous structure

Comparison on the durability of different portland cements after five years exposure to sulfate and to sea water attack

Experimental research has been performed to relate specific cement characteristics to deterioration due to sulfate and sea water attack after five year exposure, and to study different test method suitability for sulfate and marine resistance. Sulfate resistance testing have been performed on mortar specimens made with fifteen cement types of statistically diverse chemical composition according to European standard EN 197-1, most of them with sulfate resistant properties according to Spanish regulations. Chemical and mechanical characteristics were studied to determine the variation in properties of selected cements. SO3 content, type and amount of additions, C3A, and C4AF content were used to examine relationships between these characteristics and the results of sulfate resistance. Mortar specimens testing using Na2SO4 as the aggressive medium according to ASTM 1012 (with w/c ratio adapted to prENV 196-X:1995) was performed using each type of cement; identical specimens were also stored in sea water, and in lime saturated water (blank condition), up to five year age. Additionally these cements were tested conforming ASTM 452 and Koch and Steinegger test. Recommended acceptance limits for sulfate resistance of cements concerning to each used test method were evaluated in order to explore their suitability. Relationships between cement characteristics, degradation, expansive products obtained by X-ray diffraction techniques and maximum expansion after applied storage treatments, were correlated at final age, to redefine cement characteristics for sulfate resistant and marine resistant Portland cement

Characterization cement pastes degraded in lanoratory solutions and physiochemical parameters employed for modeling the process

Previously degradation studies carried out, over a number of different mortars by the research team, have shown that observed degradation does not exclusively depend on the solution equilibrium pH, nor the aggressive anions relative solubility. In our tests no reason was found that could allow us to explain, why same solubility anions with a lower pH are less aggressive than others. The aim of this paper is to study cement pastes behavior in aggressive environments. As observed in previous research, this cement pastes behaviors are not easily explained only taking into account only usual parameters, pH, solubility etc. Consequently the paper is about studying if solution physicochemical characteristics are more important in certain environments than specific pH values. The paper tries to obtain a degradation model, which starting from solution physicochemical parameters allows us to interpret the different behaviors shown by different composition cements. To that end, the rates of degradation of the solid phases were computed for each considered environment. Three cement have been studied: CEM I 42.5R/SR, CEM II/A-V 42.5R and CEM IV/B-(P-V) 32.5 N. The pastes have been exposed to five environments: sodium acetate/acetic acid 0.35 M, sodium sulfate solution 0.17 M, a solution representing natural water, saturated calcium hydroxide solution and laboratory environment. The attack mechanism was meant to be unidirectional, in order to achieve so; all sides of cylinders were sealed except from the attacked surface. The cylinders were taking out of the exposition environments after 2, 4, 7, 14, 30, 58 and 90 days. Both aggressive solution variations in solid phases and in different depths have been characterized. To each age and depth the calcium, magnesium and iron contents have been analyzed. Hydrated phases evolution studied, using thermal analysis, and crystalline compound changes, using X ray diffraction have been also analyzed. Sodium sulphate and water solutions stabilize an outer pH near to 8 in short time, however the stability of the most pH dependent phases is not the same. Although having similar pH and existing the possibility of forming a plaster layer near to the calcium leaching surface, this stability is greater than other sulphate solutions. Stability variations of solids formed by inverse diffusion, determine the rate of degradation.

Hydration of C3S, C2S and their Blends. Micro- and Nanoscale Characterization

This study forms part of wider research conducted under a EU 7 th Framework Programme (COmputationally Driven design of Innovative CEment-based materials or CODICE). The ultimate aim is the multi-scale modelling of the variations in mechanical performance in degraded and non-degraded cementitious matrices. The model is being experimentally validated by hydrating the main tri-calcium silicate (T1-C3S) and bi-calcium silicate (β-C2S), phases present in Portland cement and their blends. The present paper discusses micro- and nanoscale studies of the cementitious skeletons forming during the hydration of C3S, C2S and 70 % / 30 % blends of both C3S/C2S and C2S/C3S with a water/cement ratio of 0.4. The hydrated pastes were characterized at different curing ages with 29 Si NMR, SEM/TEM/EDS, BET, and nanoindentation. The findings served as a basis for the micro- and nanoscale characterization of the hydration products formed, especially C-S-H gels. Differences were identified in composition, structure and mechanical behaviour (nanoindentation), depending on whether the gels formed in C3S or C2S pastes. The C3S gels had more compact morphologies, smaller BET-N2 specific surface area and lesser porosity than the gels from C2S-rich pastes. The results of nanoindentation tests appear to indicate that the various C-S-H phases formed in hydrated C3S and C2S have the same mechanical properties as those formed in Portland cement paste. Compared to the C3S sample, the hydrated C2S specimen was dominated by the loose-packed (LP) and the low-density (LD) C-S-H phases, and had a much lower content of the high density (HD) C-S-H phase

Mapping of mechanical properties of cement paste microstructures

The presented study is related to the EU 7 th Framework Programme CODICE (COmputationally Driven design of Innovative CEment-based materials). The main aim of the project is the development of a multi-scale model for the computer based simulation of mechanical and durability performance of cementitious materials. This paper reports results of micro/nano scale characterisation and mechanical property mapping of cementitious skeletons formed by the cement hydration at different ages. Using the statistical nanoindentation and micro-mechanical property mapping technique, intrinsic properties of different hydrate phases, and also the possible interaction (or overlapping) of different phases (e.g. calcium-silcate-hydrates) has been studied. Results of the mapping and statistical indentation testing appear to suggest the possible existence of more hydrate phases than the commonly reported LD and HD C-S-H and CH phases

Ethics and materials: Some Spanish Cases

The problem is general: modern architects and engineers are trying to understand historic structures using the wrong theoretical frame, the classic (elastic) thery of structures developed in the 19th Century for iron and stell, and in the 20th century for reinforced concrete, disguised with "modern" computer packages, mainly FEM, but also others. Masonry is an essentially different material, and the structural equations must be adapted accordingly. It is not a matter of "taste" or "opinion", and the consequences are before us. Since, say 1920s, historic monuments have suffered the aggression of generations of archietcts and engineers, trying to transform masonry in reinfored concrete or steel. The damage to the monuments and the expense has been, and is, enormous. However, as we have an adequate theory (modern limit analysis of masonry structures, Heyman 1966) which encompasses the "old theory" used successfully by the 18th and 19th Century practical engineers (from Perronet to Sejourné), it is a matter of "Ethics" not to use the wrong approach. It is also "contra natura" to modify the material masonry with indiscriminate injections, stitchings, etc. It is insane to consider, suddenly, that buildings which are Centuries or milennia old, are suddenly in danger of collapse. Maintenance is necessary but not the actual destruction of the constructive essence of the monument. A cocktail of "ignorance, fear and greed" is acting under the best of intentions.

Aproximación cuantitativa a la evaluación de la sostenibilidad de las estructuras

El proceso de construcción incide sobre el medio ambiente desde la obtención de los recursos que utiliza, hasta la optimización del uso de la energía y el desecho de materiales y sustancias de diversa índole. Es ingente que el sector de la construcción considere su responsabilidad al respecto y cuente con herramientas de fácil aplicación, como la que pretende ofrecer esta investigación, que le permita determinar el impacto que tendrá sobre el ambiente una determinada solución estructural. A lo largo del presente trabajo se realiza una revisión de los principales instrumentos de evaluación y de las diferentes metodologías creadas para la evaluación del impacto ambiental, en base a estas se realiza la propuesta de un índice para la evaluación de las estructuras, la cual sirve para realizar una comparación entre dos soluciones estructurales. Los objetivos de este trabajo son: hacer una aproximación cuantitativa a la evaluación del impacto ambiental ocasionado por una estructura ; motivar a los proyectistas a tomar en cuenta los factores ambientales al momento de proyectar, por medio del uso de instrumentos de fácil aplicación ; realizar una revisión bibliográfica de los diferentes sistemas que existen a nivel mundial para cuantificar el impacto ambiental, específicamente buscando los sistemas que cuantifiquen el impacto de la estructura, entendiendo como estructura el conjunto de elementos (vigas, losa o forjado, columnas o pilares y cimentación) que soportan la estructura ; desarrollar un instrumento mediante el cual se pueda evaluar de manera cuantitativa y sencilla el impacto ambiental de una estructura. Que a su vez sirva a los proyectistas de una base o instrumento para poder evaluar la eficiencia de una estructura propuesta en base al impacto ambiental de la misma.

Estudio dinámico de puentes de ferrocarril sometidos a nuevos modelos de carga en el marco europeo

Más allá de la alta velocidad, y debido en parte a su éxito, en los últimos años han aparecido trenes de pasajeros capaces de circular a velocidades más elevadas y ser más eficientes (como, por ejemplo, los de tipo automotor). Además, algunos de los antiguos modelos recogidos en las normativas parecen no cubrir determinados casos, lo que ha llevado a la reciente modificación de éstas. A todo esto se le añade la necesidad de crear una normativa común europea que establezca las bases para lograr la interoperabilidad. Con este proyecto se pretende estudiar los efectos dinámicos en puentes de estas nuevas tipologías de trenes, haciendo especial hincapié en los trenes automotores. El trabajo se centra principalmente en puentes isostáticos de luces cortas, por ser éstos especialmente sensibles a este tipo de acciones. El parámetro crítico, en estos casos, son las aceleraciones en centro de vano. Se realizara el cálculo dinámico por diferentes métodos: elementos finitos, análisis modal, así como programas de integración numérica en Matlab de los modos de vibración, analizando y comparando la efectividad de estos. Las diferencias entre la consideración o no de la distribución de las cargas transmitidas al tablero de la estructura de la vía a serán discutidas en el proyecto, así como la interacción dinámica entre estructura y vehículo. Finalmente se aplicarán los conocimientos obtenidos a varios casos reales de puentes incluidos en la red ferroviaria española, como por ejemplo, el viaducto de alta velocidad del Jalón. Los resultados de estos estudios tienen una repercusión en diversas normativas europeas actualmente en revisión y en las cuales está involucrado el Grupo de Mecánica Computacional: EN15528 European Committee for Standarization (2008), EN1991-2 European Committee for Standarization (2003) y las Especificaciones Técnicas de Interoperabilidad Ferroviaria (TSI).

Safety assessment of underground vehicles passing over highly resilient straight tracks in the presence of a broken rail

In this paper, vehicle-track interaction for a new slab track design, conceived to reduce noise and vibration levels has been analyzed, assessing the derailment risk for trains running on curved track when encountering a broken rail. Two different types of rail fastening systems with different elasticities have been analysed and compared. Numerical methods were used in order to simulate the dynamic behaviour of the train-track interaction. Multibody system (MBS) modelling techniques were combined with techniques based on the finite element method (FEM). MBS modelling was used for modelling the vehicle and FEM for simulating the elastic track. The simulation model was validated by comparing simulated results to experimental data obtained in field testing. During the simulations various safety indices, characteristic of derailment risk, were analysed. The simulations realised at the maximum running velocity of 110 km/h showed a similar behaviour for several track types. When reducing the running speed, the safety indices worsened for both cases. Although the worst behaviour was observed for the track with a greater elasticity, in none of the simulations did a derailment occur when running over the broken rail.

Safety assessment of underground vehicles passing over highly resilient curved tracks in the presence of a broken rail

Vehicle–track interaction for a new resilient slab track designed to reduce noise and vibration levels was analysed, in order to assess the derailment risk on a curved track when encountering a broken rail. Sensitivity of the rail support spacing of the relative position of the rail breakage between two adjacent rail supports and of running speed were analysed for two different elasticities of the rail fastening system. In none of the cases analysed was observed an appreciable difference between either of the elastic systems. As was expected, the most unfavourable situations were those with greater rail support spacing and those with greater distance from the breakage to the nearest rail support, although in none of the simulations performed did a derailment occur when running over the broken rail. When varying the running speed, the most favourable condition was obtained for an intermediate speed, due to the superposition of two antagonistic effects.

Application of virtual certification techniques to vehicle design and track maintenance

Virtual certification partially substitutes by computer simulations the experimental techniques required for rail vehicle certification. In this paper, several works were these techniques were used in the vehicle design and track maintenance processes are presented. Dynamic simulation of multibody systems was used to virtually apply the EN14363 standard to certify the dynamic behaviour of vehicles. The works described are: assessment of a freight bogie design adapted to meter-gauge, assessment of a railway track layout for a subway network, freight bogie design with higher speed and axle load, and processing of the data acquired by a track recording vehicle for track maintenance.

Diseño de cimentaciones directas para grúas torre en Edificación.

Los puntos principales a tener en cuenta en el diseño o comprobación de una cimentación directa para una grúa torre convencional, son tratados en el presente artículo. Aspectos tales como las acciones a considerar en el cálculo del elemento, las comprobaciones frente a la estabilidad del conjunto cimiento-torre, la transmisión de presiones al terreno o el dimensionado de las armaduras de refuerzo, serán objeto de desarrollo en este documento. El escrito pretende servir de guía a los técnicos que se enfrenten al diseño de una cimentación de estas características, aportando herramientas de cálculo, recursos técnicos y bibliografía al respecto.

Diseño y ejecución de elementos metálicos como sistemas de arriostramiento provisional en pantallas continuas de HA

El diseño de elementos metálicos como sistemas arriostramientos provisionales de sujección de pantallas es tratado en el presente artículo. Cuando no es factible el empleo de anclajes activos para resistir los empujes del terreno de forma provisional, una técnica equivalente es el empleo de arriostramientos metálicos. Las acciones a considerar en su diseño, la rigidez de estos elementos frente a la pantalla o el diseño de las uniones serán tratados en el presente artículo

Clasificación de los sistemas y elementos constructivos de las estructuras metálicas en hierro y acero para la actualización de la normativa técnica

El estudio del lenguaje técnico es una tarea común a varias disciplinas. La terminología es una disciplina autónoma de carácter interdisciplinario al servicio de diferentes campos científico-técnicos. Los enfoques interdisciplinares/transversales permiten acercarse a un mismo fenómeno desde distintos ángulos ofreciendo una imagen más completa con diferentes aportaciones procedentes de los distintos métodos utilizados [1]. En la actualidad, es esencial la colaboración interdisciplinar de áreas que comparten aspectos íntimamente ligados como en el presente estudio: la terminología, la arquitectura y la construcción. La Normativa Técnica española en el área de la arquitectura y de la construcción ha sufrido muchos cambios en relación con la clasificación de los sistemas y elementos constructivos. La presente comunicación toma como punto de partida el análisis de un corpus 1 [2] lingüístico automatizado que contiene textos especializados, en lengua inglesa y española, del subdominio de sistemas y elementos constructivos de las estructuras metálicas de hierro y acero. La investigación se realiza mediante el estudio de estos textos de referencia empleados por los profesionales de la arquitectura y de la construcción. En esta comunicación se presentan los resultados relacionados con un elemento estructural que se presta a un análisis conceptual complejo, a saber “beam”, en español “viga”. Partimos del análisis semántico de las unidades clave (nudos conceptuales) para establecer las clases/categorías conceptuales pertinentes a este subdominio de especialidad. Posteriormente analizamos los nudos conceptuales con el objetivo de representar las relaciones entre los conceptos por medio de un análisis contrastivo de los conceptos/términos en lengua inglesa y española con el fin de determinar si el uso, en las dos lenguas de estudio, concuerda con la definición dada en los textos y en la normativa de origen.