(Figure 3d) Export production reconstruction based on planktonic foraminiferal sampled in surface sediments

To reconstruct Export Productivity (Pexp), 27 taxonomic categories of the planktonic foraminifera census data were used with the modern analog technique SIMMAX 28 (Pflaumann et al., 1996, doi:10.1029/95PA01743; 2003, doi:10.1029/2002PA000774). To the 26 taxonomic groups widely used and listed in Kucera et al. (2005, doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2004.07.014), Turborotalita humilis was added in our calibration as it is associated with the PCC source region (Meggers et al., 2002, doi:10.1016/S0967-0645(02)00103-0). The modern analog file is based on the Iberian margin database (Salgueiro et al., 2008, doi:10.1016/j.marmicro.2007.09.003) combined with the North Atlantic surface samples used by the MARGO project (Kucera et al., 2005). This results in a total of 999 analogs for Pexp. Modern oceanic primary productivity (PP) is obtained for each site by averaging 12 monthly primary productivity values for a 8-year period (1978-1986) that were estimated from satellite color data (CZCS) and gridded at 0.5° latitude - longitude fields (Antoine et al., 1996, doi:10.1029/95GB02832). Export Productivity (Pexp) was calculated from the PP values following the empirical relationship Pexp = PP**2/400 for primary production below 200 gC/m**2/yr, and Pexp = PP/2 for primary production above 200 gC/m2/yr (Eppley and Peterson, 1979, doi:10.1038/282677a0; Sarnthein et al., 1988, doi:10.1029/PA003i003p00361). The residuals gives the differences between satellite based Pexp and foraminiferal Pexp.

Export Restrictions on Critical Minerals and Metals: Testing the Adequacy of WTO Disciplines

Conventional wisdom on the insufficiency of existing WTO disciplines on export restrictions has triggered momentum on the issue. In this book, Ilaria Espa offers a comprehensive analysis of the scope and coverage of WTO disciplines on export restrictions in light of emerging case law. She investigates whether such rules still provide a credible and effective framework capable of preventing abuses in the use of export restrictive measures on critical minerals and metals during a period of economic crisis and change in international trade patterns. Giving a broad overview of the export restrictions applied to these materials, Espa identifies distinctive features in the proliferation of export barriers and analyses the existing WTO rules to reveal their gaps and inconsistencies. She goes on to present solutions based upon her findings with the aim of bringing more coherence and equity to WTO rules on the export side.

Energy Export Restrictions in the WTO Between Resources Nationalism and Sustainable Development

This chapter aims at contributing to the trade and energy debate by focusing on the specific issue of export restrictions. It starts from the premise that a balanced and efficient regulation of export barriers in the energy sector would contribute to tackle emerging energy concerns such as energy security and the elimination of fossil fuel subsidies in light of the challenge of climate change mitigation. It assesses the adequacy of existing WTO rules on export restric­tions and accordingly identifies the main gaps and inconsistencies inherent in the current disciplines from an energy-specific perspective. Finally, it discusses the merits of an energy-specific approach to advance existing disciplines in the most deficient area of export duties based on the systematisation of the Russian ‘model’. Such approach could raise the overall level of commitments in the energy sector while still allowing for the systemic applicability of GATT environmental exceptions in a manner consistent with the principle of sus­tainable development recognised in the Preamble of the WTO Agreement.