Multiple site phosphorylation of tyrosine hydroxylase: A potential role for protein kinase C in the regulation of catecholamine synthesis

Tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), the initial and rate limiting enzyme in the catecholaminergic biosynthetic pathway, is phosphorylated on multiple serine residues by multiple protein kinases. Although it has been demonstrated that many protein kinases are capable of phosphorylating and activating TH in vitro, it is less clear which protein kinases participate in the physiological regulation of catecholamine synthesis in situ. These studies were designed to determine if protein kinase C (PK-C) plays such a regulatory role.^ Stimulation of intact bovine adrenal chromaffin cells with phorbol esters results in stimulation of catecholamine synthesis, tyrosine hydroxylase phosphorylation and activation. These responses are both time and concentration dependent, and are specific for those phorbol ester analogues which activate PK-C. RP-HPLC analysis of TH tryptic phosphopeptides indicate that PK-C phosphorylates TH on three putative sites. One of these (pepetide 6) is the same as that phosphorylated by both cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PK-A) and calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CaM-K). However, two of these sites (peptides 4 and 7) are unique, and, to date, have not been shown to be phosphorylated by any other protein kinase. These peptides correspond to those which are phosphorylated with a slow time course in response to stimulation of chromaffin cells with the natural agonist acetylcholine. The activation of TH produced by PK-C is most closely correlated with the phosphorylation of peptide 6. But, as evident from pH profiles of tyrosine hydroxylase activity, phosphorylation of peptides 4 and 7 affect the expression of the activation produced by phosphorylation of peptide 6.^ These data support a role for PK-C in the control of TH activity, and suggest a two stage model for the physiological regulation of catecholamine synthesis by phosphorylation in response to cholinergic stimulation. An initial fast response, which appears to be mediated by CaM-K, and a slower, sustained response which appears to be mediated by PK-C. In addition, the multiple site phosphorylation of TH provides a mechanism whereby the regulation of catecholamine synthesis appears to be under the control of multiple protein kinases, and allows for the convergence of multiple, diverse physiological and biochemical signals. ^

cAMP-dependent protein kinase and heterologous desensitization of the adenylyl cyclase

Previous experiments had shown no differences in desensitization in cells with mutations of the adenylyl cyclase or the cAMP-dependent protein kinase and had ruled out this kinase as a mediator of desensitization; however, the assays of adenylyl cyclase had been made at high concentrations of free magnesium. The work presented in this dissertation documents a role for cAMP-dependent protein kinase which became apparent with assays at low concentrations of free magnesium. (1) The adenylyl cyclase in membranes from wild type S49 lymphoma cells showed substantial desensitization after incubation of the intact cells with low concentrations of epinephrine (5-20 nM). This desensitization was heterologous, that is it reduced the subsequent responses of the adenylyl cyclase to both epinephrine and prostaglandin-E$\sb1$. (2) The adenylyl cyclase in membranes of S49 cyc$\sp-$ cells, which do not make cAMP in response to hormones, and S49 kin$\sp-$ cells, which lack cAMP-dependent protein kinase activity, showed no heterologous desensitization following incubation of the intact cells with low concentrations of hormones. (3) Heterologous desensitization of the adenylyl cyclase was induced by incubations of wild type cells with forskolin, which activates the adenylyl cyclase downstream of the hormone receptors, or dibutyryl-cAMP, which activates the cAMP-dependent protein kinase directly. (4) Site-directed mutagenesis was used to delete the cAMP-dependent protein kinase consensus phosphorylation sequences on the $\beta$-adrenergic receptor. Heterologous desensitization occurred in intact L-cells expressing the wild type receptor or the receptor lacking the C-terminal phosphorylation site; however, only homologous desensitization occurred when the phosphorylation site on the third intracellular loop of the receptor was deleted. (5) To test directly the effects of cAMP-dependent protein kinase on the adenylyl cyclase the catalytic subunit of the kinase was purified from bovine heart and incubated with adenylyl cyclase in plasma membrane preparations. In this cell-free system the kinase caused rapid heterlogous reductions of the responsiveness of the S49 wild type adenylyl cyclase. Additionally, the adenylyl cyclase in kin$\sp-$ membranes, which showed only homologous desensitization in the intact cell, was desensitization by cell-free incubation with the kinase.^ The epinephrine responsiveness was not affected in L-cell membranes expressing the $\beta$-adrenergic receptor lacking the cAMP-dependent protein kinase consensus sequence on the third intracellular loop. ^

Effects of externally supplied protein on root morphology and biomass allocation in Arabidopsis

Growth, morphogenesis and function of roots are influenced by the concentration and form of nutrients present in soils, including low molecular mass inorganicN(IN, ammonium, nitrate) and organicN(ON, e. g. amino acids). Proteins, ON of high molecular mass, are prevalent in soils but their possible effects on roots have received little attention. Here, we investigated how externally supplied protein of a size typical of soluble soil proteins influences root development of axenically grown Arabidopsis. Addition of low to intermediate concentrations of protein (bovine serum albumen, BSA) to IN-replete growth medium increased root dry weight, root length and thickness, and root hair length. Supply of higher BSA concentrations inhibited root development. These effects were independent of total N concentrations in the growth medium. The possible involvement of phytohormones was investigated using Arabidopsis with defective auxin (tir1-1 and axr2-1) and ethylene (ein2-1) responses. That no phenotype was observed suggests a signalling pathway is operating independent of auxin and ethylene responses. This study expands the knowledge on N form-explicit responses to demonstrate that ON of high molecular mass elicits specific responses.

Clinical outcomes following regenerative therapy of non-contained intrabony defects using a deproteinized bovine bone mineral combined with either enamel matrix derivative or collagen membrane

BACKGROUND The purpose of this study is to compare clinical outcomes in the treatment of deep non-contained intrabony defects (i.e., with ≥70% 1-wall component and a residual 2- to 3-wall component in the most apical part) using deproteinized bovine bone mineral (DBBM) combined with either enamel matrix protein derivative (EMD) or collagen membrane (CM). METHODS Forty patients with multiple intrabony defects were enrolled. Only one non-contained defect per patient with an intrabony depth ≥3 mm located in the interproximal area of single- and multirooted teeth was randomly assigned to the treatment with either EMD + DBBM (test: n = 20) or CM + DBBM (control: n = 20). At baseline and after 12 months, clinical parameters including probing depth (PD) and clinical attachment level (CAL) were recorded. The primary outcome variable was the change in CAL between baseline and 12 months. RESULTS At baseline, the intrabony component of the defects amounted to 6.1 ± 1.9 mm for EMD + DBBM and 6.0 ± 1.9 mm for CM + DBBM sites (P = 0.81). The mean CAL gain at sites treated with EMD + DBBM was not statistically significantly different (P = 0.82) compared with CM + DBBM (3.8 ± 1.5 versus 3.7 ± 1.2 mm). No statistically significant difference (P = 0.62) was observed comparing the frequency of CAL gain ≥4 mm between EMD + DBBM (60%) and CM + DBBM (50%) or comparing the frequency of residual PD ≥6 mm between EMD + DBBM (5%) and CM + DBBM (15%) (P = 0.21). CONCLUSION Within the limitations of the present study, regenerative therapy using either EMD + DBBM or CM + DBBM yielded comparable clinical outcomes in deep non-contained intrabony defects after 12 months.

A pilot study for targeted surveillance of bovine spongiform encephalopathy in Nigeria.

Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), popularly known as 'mad cow disease', led to an epidemic in Europe that peaked in the mid-1990s. Its impact on developing countries, such as Nigeria, has not been fully established as information on livestock and surveillance has eluded those in charge of this task. The BSE risk to Nigeria's cattle population currently remains undetermined, which has resulted in international trade restrictions on commodities from the cattle population. This is mainly because of a lack of updated BSE risk assessments and disease surveillance data. To evaluate the feasibility of BSE surveillance in Nigeria, we carried out a pilot study targeting cattle that were presented for emergency or casualty slaughter. In total, 1551 cattle of local breeds, aged 24 months and above were clinically examined. Ataxia, recumbency and other neurological signs were topmost on our list of criteria. A total of 96 cattle, which correspond to 6.2%, presented clinical signs that supported a suspect of BSE. The caudal brainstem tissues of these animals were collected post-mortem and analysed for the disease-specific form of the prion protein using a rapid test approved by the International Animal Health Organization (OIE). None of the samples were positive for BSE. Although our findings do not exclude the presence of BSE in Nigeria, they do demonstrate that targeted sampling of clinically suspected cases of BSE is feasible in developing countries. In addition, these findings point to the possibility of implementing clinical monitoring schemes for BSE and potentially other diseases with grave economic and public health consequences.

The gene for histone RNA hairpin binding protein is located on human chromosome 4 and encodes a novel type of RNA binding protein.

The hairpin structure at the 3' end of animal histone mRNAs controls histone RNA 3' processing, nucleocytoplasmic transport, translation and stability of histone mRNA. Functionally overlapping, if not identical, proteins binding to the histone RNA hairpin have been identified in nuclear and polysomal extracts. Our own results indicated that these hairpin binding proteins (HBPs) bind their target RNA as monomers and that the resulting ribonucleoprotein complexes are extremely stable. These features prompted us to select for HBP-encoding human cDNAs by RNA-mediated three-hybrid selection in Saccharomyces cerevesiae. Whole cell extract from one selected clone contained a Gal4 fusion protein that interacted with histone hairpin RNA in a sequence- and structure-specific manner similar to a fraction enriched for bovine HBP, indicating that the cDNA encoded HBP. DNA sequence analysis revealed that the coding sequence did not contain any known RNA binding motifs. The HBP gene is composed of eight exons covering 19.5 kb on the short arm of chromosome 4. Translation of the HBP open reading frame in vitro produced a 43 kDa protein with RNA binding specificity identical to murine or bovine HBP. In addition, recombinant HBP expressed in S. cerevisiae was functional in histone pre-mRNA processing, confirming that we have indeed identified the human HBP gene.

NonViral Gene Delivery of Growth and Differentiation Factor 6 (GDF6) to whole bovine Intervertebral Disc

Question: Low back pain is an increasing global health problem, which is associated with intervertebral disc (IVD) damage and de- generation. Major changes occur in the nucleus pulposus (NP), with the degradation of the extracellular matrix (ECM) [1]. Further studies showed that growth factors from the transforming growth factor (TGF) and bone morphogenic proteins (BMP) family may induce chondrogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) [2]. Focusing on non-viral gene therapies and their possible translation into the clinics, we investigated if GDF6 (syn. BMP13 or CDMP2) can induce regeneration of degraded NP. We hypothesized that IVD transfected with plasmid over-expressing GDF6 also up-regulates other NP- and chondrogenic cell markers and enhances ECM deposition. Methods: Bovine IVD cells were isolated by pronase/collagenase II overnight digestion. After monolayer expansion up to passage 3, cells were transfected with the plasmid pGDF6 (RG211366, Origene, SF) or with green fluorescence protein (GFP) control using the NeonÒ transfection system (Invitrogen, Basel), both equipped with a Cy- tomegalovirus (CMV) promotor to induce over-expression. We tested a range of yet unpublished parameters for each of the primary disc cells to optimize efficiency. To test a non-viral gene therapy applied directly to 3D whole organ culture, bovine IVDs were harvested from fresh tails obtained from the abattoir within 5 h post-mortem [3]. Discs were then pre-incubated for 24 h in high glucose Dulbecco’s Modified Eagle Medium and 5 % fetal calf serum. Each disc was transfected by injection of 5 lg of plasmid GDF6 (Origene, RG211366) into the center by 25G needle and using Hamilton sy- ringe. Electroporation was performed using 2-needle array electrode or tweezertrodes; 8 pulses at 200mv/cm with an interval of 10 ms were applied using ECM830 Square Wave Electroporation System (Harvard Apparatus, MA) (Fig. 1). After transfection discs were cultured for 72 h to allow expression of GFP or GDF6. Discs were then fixed, cryosectioned and analysed by immunofluorescence against GDF6. Results: We successfully transfected bovine NP and AF cells in monolayer culture with the two plasmids using a 1,400 V, 20 ms and 2 pulses with a *25 % efficiency using 0.15 M cells and 3 lg DNA (Fig. 1). Organ IVD culture transfection revealed GFP6 positive staining in the centre of the disc using 2-needle array electrode. Results from tweezertrodes did not show any GFP posi- tive cells. Conclusions: We identified novel parameters to successfully transfect primary bovine IVD cells. For transfection of whole IVD explants electroporation parameters need to be further optimized. Acknowledgments: This study was supported by the Lindenhof Foundation ‘‘Forschung und Lehre’’ (Project no. 13-02-F). References 1. Roughly PJ (2004) Spine (Phila) 29:2691–2699 2. 3. Clarke LE, McConell JC, Sherratt MJ, Derby B, Richardson SM, Hoyland JA (2014) Arthritis Res Ther 16:R67 Chan SC, Gantenbein-Ritter B (2012) J Vis Exp 60(60):e3490

Identification of two Th1 cell epitopes on the Babesia bovis-encoded 77-kilodalton merozoite protein (Bb-1) by use of truncated recombinant fusion proteins

Previous studies have demonstrated the serologic and T-cell immunogenicity for cattle of a recombinant form of the apical complex-associated 77-kDa merozite protein of Babesia bovis, designated Bb-1. The present study characterizes the immunogenic epitopes of the Bb-1 protein. A series of recombinant truncated fusion proteins spanning the majority of the Bb-1 protein were expressed in Escherichia coli, and their reactivities with bovine peripheral blood mononuclear cells and T-cell clones derived from B. bovis-immune cattle and with rabbit antibodies were determined. Lymphocytes from two immune cattle were preferentially stimulated by the N-terminal half of the Bb-1 protein (amino acids 23 to 266, termed Bb-1A), localizing the T-cell epitopes to the Bb-1A portion of the molecule. CD4+ T-cell clones derived by stimulation with the intact Bb-1 fusion protein were used to identify two T-cell epitopes in the Bb-1A protein, consisting of amino acids SVVLLSAFSGN VWANEAEVSQVVK and FSDVDKTKSTEKT (residues 23 to 46 and 82 to 94). In contrast, rabbit antiserum raised against the intact fusion protein reacted only with the C-terminal half of the protein (amino acids 267 to 499, termed Bb-1B), which contained 28 tandem repeats of the tetrapeptide PAEK or PAET. Biological assays and Northern (RNA) blot analyses for cytokines revealed that following activation with concanavalin A, T-cell clones reactive against the two Bb-1A epitopes produced interleukin-2, gamma interferon, and tumor necrosis factors beta and alpha, but not interleukin-4, suggesting that the Bb-1 antigen preferentially stimulates the Th1 subset of CD4+ T cells in cattle. The studies described here report for the first time the characterization, by cytokine production, of the Th1 subset of bovine T cells and show that, as in mice, protozoal antigens can induce Th1 cells in ruminants. This first demonstration of B. bovis-encoded Th1 cell epitopes provides a rationale for incorporation of all or part of the Bb-1 protein into a recombinant vaccine.

Production and characterisation of monoclonal antibodies specific for bovine interleukin-4

Genetic immunisation is a simple method for producing polyclonal antibodies in mice. By this method, we produced antibodies against bovine interleukin-4 (BoIL-4). After a final injection with a recombinant BoIL-4 protein, nine stable hybridoma cell lines were established which secreted monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) against this cytokine. Specific binding of each of the MAbs to recombinant BoIL-4 produced by Escherichia coli, baculovirus, and Trypanosoma brucei was demonstrated in an indirect ELISA and/or in Western blotting. These MAbs recognise the same antigenic region localised in the first 47 amino acids of the mature protein. None of them was able to neutralise the biological activity of the BoIL-4 under the conditions tested but one allowed the detection of BoIL-4 by flow cytometry.

Regulation of bovine IL-12R beta 2 subunit mRNA expression in bovine lymph node cells

The beta 2 subunit of the interleukin (IL)-12 receptor (IL-12R beta 2) has been shown to play an essential role in differentiation of T helper 1 (Th1) cells in the murine and human system, and antibodies raised against IL-12R beta 2 recognized this molecule on human Th1 but not Th2 cells. However, while the cytokines secreted by clones of murine cells allowed the definition of distinct T helper cell subsets, bovine clones with polarized Th1 and Th2 cytokine profiles were rarely found. This raised important questions about the regulation of immune responses in cattle. We therefore cloned bovine IL-12R beta2 (boIL-12R beta 2) DNA complementary to RNA (cDNA) from the start codon to the 3' end of the mRNA. Comparison of boIL-12R beta 2 cDNA with human and murine IL-12R beta 2 cDNA sequences revealed homologies of 85 and 78%, respectively. The deduced protein sequence showed the hallmark motifs of the cytokine receptor superfamily including the four conserved cysteine residues, the WSXWS motif and fibronectin domains in the extracellular part as well as a STAT4 binding site in the intracellular part of the molecule. Using real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, upregulation of mRNA expression of this molecule could be demonstrated in cultured bovine lymph node cells stimulated with phytohemagglutinin. Furthermore, cells with upregulated boIL-12R beta 2 mRNA responded with enhanced expression of interferon gamma to treatment with interleukin 12.

Mejora del valor proteico para rumiantes de la harina de girasol mediante tratamientos combinados con ácidos (málico y fosfórico) y calor = Improvement of the protein value for ruminants of sunflower meal by combined treatments with acids (malic and orthophosphoric) and heat

El objetivo principal de esta tesis fue incrementar el valor proteico para rumiantes de la harina de girasol mediante tratamientos combinados con ácidos y calor para proteger sus proteínas frente a la degradación ruminal. Estos estudios comprenden dos experimentos realizados sobre ovinos mediante tecnologías in vitro (experimento 1) o in situ e in vivo (experimento 2), empleando siempre dos ácidos: málico u ortofosfórico. Aprovechando este último experimento, también se consideraron otros objetivos de carácter metodológico con el fin de mejorar la precisión de las estimas de i) la degradabilidad ruminal y la digestibilidad intestinal de la proteína y los aminoácidos (AAs) de los alimentos y ii) la síntesis microbiana ruminal y su contribución al flujo post-ruminal de nutrientes al animal. En el experimento 1 (capítulo 2) se efectuaron cuatro ensayos in vitro para estudiar la influencia de distintos factores que puedan afectar la eficacia de estos tratamientos. En cada ensayo se utilizó una réplica por tratamiento (dos para el tratamiento control) y dos bolsas vacías (empleadas para corregir la contaminación microbiana) en cada una de las cuatro botellas del incubador (ANKOM Daisy II). Cada botella contenía 2 l de medio de incubación, saturado con CO2 para asegurar la anaerobiosis. Este medio consistió en una mezcla de solución McDougall y liquido ruminal filtrado en relación 4:1. El liquido ruminal fue obtenido de 2 corderos canulados en rumen, utilizándose bien solo o mezclado con el del otro cordero en una relación 3:1. Así, cada botella de incubación contenía un inoculo ruminal diferente. Las incubaciones se realizaron a 39 ºC durante 20 h, siendo las bolsas lavadas con agua corriente y almacenadas a -20 ºC. Tras ser descongeladas, se lavaron 3 veces durante 5 min en una mini-lavadora de turbina, se desecaron a 80 ºC durante 48 h y se destinaron íntegras al análisis de N-Kjeldahl. En el ensayo 1 se estudió el efecto del volumen de disolución de dos dosis de ácido ortofosfórico (0,4 y 1,2 equivalentes gramo (eq)/kg de harina de girasol), testando cinco volúmenes de disolución (80, 160, 240, 320 and 400 ml/kg de harina) para cada dosis, desecándose las harinas a 60 ºC hasta sequedad al tacto. La proteína bruta (PB) indegradada se incremento con la dosis de ácido empleada y también (como tendencia, P < 0,1) con el volumen de dilución. En base a ello en los siguientes ensayos se utilizo el volumen de dilución mayor (400 ml/kg). En el ensayo 2 se estudió el efecto de la dosis y del tipo de ácido a cuatro dosis (1,2; 2,4; 3,6 y 4,8 eq/kg), secándose igualmente las muestras tratadas a 60 ºC. La PB indegradada aumentó con la dosis de ácido, siendo también mayor para el ácido málico, tanto en este ensayo como en los posteriores. En el ensayo 3 se estudiaron los efectos de los dos ácidos, cuatro concentraciones (0,6; 1,2; 1,8 y 2,4 eq/kg) y tres tratamientos térmicos para el secado de las muestras (100, 150 and 200 ºC durante 60, 30 y 20 minutos, respectivamente). Con los tratamientos térmicos a 100 y 150 ºC no hubo un incremento de protección para concentraciones superiores a 0,8 eq/kg para ambos ácidos. Para incrementar la protección fue necesario aumentar la temperatura a 200 ºC y la dosis a 1,2 eq/kg, no observándose un aumento de protección a dosis mayores. En el ensayo 4 se estudiaron los efectos sobre la lisina disponible, la solubilidad de la PB en saliva artificial de McDougall y la PB indegradada in vitro de tratar la harina solo con agua o con disoluciones de ambos ácidos a dosis de 0,8 eq/kg y temperaturas de secado de 100 ó 150 ºC en las mismas condiciones que en el ensayo 3. No se apreciaron efectos sobre la lisina disponible para ninguno de los tratamientos. El efecto específico de los ácidos quedo demostrado tanto por la fuerte reducción de la solubilidad de la PB como por el aumento de la PB indegradada frente al tratamiento con agua. En conjunto, los resultados de este experimento mostraron que la eficacia de estos tratamientos depende del tipo y dosis de ácido y de su dilución, así como de las condiciones de secado. Como tratamiento de mayor interés a aplicar posteriormente en el experimento 2 se consideró una dosis de 0,8 eq/kg de harina, aplicada en un volumen de 400 ml/kg (correspondiente a soluciones 1 M y 0,67 M para los ácidos málico y ortofosfórico, respectivamente) y desecación a 150 ºC. El experimento 2 (capítulos 3 a 7) se realizó con un diseño en cuadrado latino 3x3, empleando tres corderos canulados en rumen y duodeno y tres dietas isoproteicas: U, M y P, que incluían harinas de girasol sin tratar (control) y tratadas con acido málico u ortofosfórico, respectivamente. La harina de girasol se trató en las condiciones ya indicadas siendo necesarias 6 horas para su secado en estufa. Las dietas incluían 40% de heno de raigrás italiano y 60% de concentrado a base de harina de girasol (tratada y/o sin tratar), trigo y corrector vitamínico-mineral, siendo suministradas a 75 g/kg P0.75 (equivalente a 2,3 × mantenimiento). La relación harina de girasol sin tratar y tratada fue de 100:0 en la dieta U y entorno a 40:60 en las dietas M y P. Tras 10 días de adaptación a la dieta, se estudiaron sucesivamente: i) el tránsito hasta el duodeno de las partículas del heno (solo en la dieta control) y de la harina de girasol marcadas previamente con europio e iterbio, respectivamente; ii) la fermentación ruminal durante el periodo postprandial, iii) la degradación ruminal in situ de la harina de girasol específica de cada dieta (y del trigo y el heno en la dieta control) y iv) la magnitud y composición del contenido ruminal mediante el vaciado manual del rumen-retículo. Durante todo el periodo experimental se infundio de forma continua una solución de sulfato amónico enriquecido en 15N (98 átomos %) para corregir la contaminación microbiana ruminal en los estudios in situ y para establecer las diferencias de composición química entre las bacterias libres (BAL) y adherentes (BAS) del rumen. Esta solución incluyó en los dos últimos días Li-Cr- EDTA para determinar la tasa de dilución ruminal. Posteriormente, y tras un periodo de al menos 10 días para eliminar el enriquecimiento en 15N de la digesta, se estudió la digestibilidad intestinal de los distintos alimentos mediante la técnica de bolsas móviles. La determinación del bypass (BP) o de la degradabilidad efectiva (DE) de la materia seca (MS) y de la PB se realizó por el método tradicional de integración matemática; estos valores se obtuvieron también para la PB y los AAs generando una muestra representativa del flujo post-ruminal del alimento en estudio en cada animal. Ello se realizó mediante la mezcla de los distintos residuos de incubación en base a la función que describe el flujo de alimento indegradado que abandona el rumen. Todos estos trabajos se realizaron considerando la tasa de salida de partículas del rumen (kp) y, según casos, considerando también la tasa de conminución y mezcla de las partículas en este compartimento (kc). Para este último caso se ha desarrollado también el modelo matemático que describe este flujo y permite este cálculo. Los valores no corregidos por la contaminación microbiana del BP (o de DE) de la PB resultantes de ambos métodos se han comparado tanto en las harinas de girasol como en los restantes alimentos de la dieta, obteniéndose valores similares, sin apreciarse desviaciones sistemáticas. Sobre las muestras compuestas representativas de la composición química del BP se determino la digestibilidad intestinal efectiva (DIE) de la MS, PB y AAs. Todos los valores resultantes de esta técnica fueron corregidos para la contaminación microbiana de las partículas que tiene lugar en el rumen. Los estudios de transito digestivo se realizaron tras suministrar en el comedero a los corderos una dosis simple de los alimentos marcados, seguida de la toma de muestras de la digesta duodenal durante 82 h. En la dieta testigo se suministraron simultáneamente el heno de raigrás y la harina de girasol, mientras que en las otras dietas solo se suministró esta última. La harina de girasol mostro un mayor valor para kc frente al heno (0,5766 v. 0,0892, /h), mientras que no hubo diferencias entre los dos alimentos para kp (0,0623 v. 0,0609, /h). Para la harina de girasol no se apreciaron diferencias entre dietas para kc, pero si se redujo de manera moderada la tasa kp con los tratamientos, siendo ésta también menor al utilizar ácido ortofosfórico frente al uso de ácido malico (0,0577 v. 0,0600, /h). El empleo de las harinas tratadas no modifico los parámetros de fermentación ruminal, la composición de los contenidos ruminales o la tasa de dilución del rumen. Los valores efectivos del BP y de DIE de la MS, PB y AAs de las harinas de girasol se obtuvieron considerando kc y kp, conjuntamente. Los tratamientos de protección incrementaron el BP de MS y PB en 48,5 y 268% de media, respectivamente. Estos incrementos se debieron principalmente al descenso de la fracción soluble y de la velocidad de degradación, pero también al aumento de la fracción indegradable, especialmente usando ácido ortofosfórico. Con los tratamientos se incrementó también la DIE de la MS (108% de media) y de la PB con gran diferencia entre los ácidos málico y ortofosfórico (20,7 v. 11,8%). Como consecuencia de estos cambios la protección aumentó la fracción realmente digerida en el intestino en 211% (MS) y 325% (PB), sin efectos entre ambos ácidos. Considerando la reducción del suministro de energía fermentable para los microorganismos ruminales asociada a la protección y los parámetros indicados por el sistema PDI francés para la síntesis de proteína microbiana digestible, la eficacia de conversión de PB en proteína metabolizable aumentó de 0,244 a 0,559 y 0,515 con el tratamiento con acido málico y ortofosfórico, respectivamente. El contenido en aminoácidos (AAs) fue similar en todas las harinas salvo por una disminución de lisina en las harinas tratadas. De forma análoga a la PB, los tratamientos de protección incrementaron el BP y la DIE de la mayoría de AAs. El aporte de AAs metabolizabes de la harina se multiplico en 3,87 para los AAs azufrados y en menor medida (2,5 veces) para la lisina, como consecuencia de las pérdidas sufridas a consecuencia del tratamiento térmico. Estos tratamientos se muestran, por tanto, útiles para incrementar el valor proteico de la harina de girasol, si bien su empleo junto con concentrados proteicos ricos en lisina bypass digestible mejoraría el perfil de la proteína metabolizable. La corrección de la contaminación microbiana de las partículas que tiene lugar en el rumen se asoció en todos los alimentos testados y, de forma general, con reducciones del BP y de su DIE en todas las fracciones estudiadas. Estas reducciones fueron pequeñas en todos los concentrados, de forma acorde con los muy pequeños niveles de contaminación registrados tanto en las harinas de girasol como en el grano de trigo. Por el contrario, esta contaminación, al igual que los efectos de su corrección, fueron muy importantes en el heno de raigrás. Esta contaminación aumentó al tener en cuenta kc. Así, para la proporción de PB de origen microbiano existente en las muestras compuestas representativas del BP, este aumento fue significativo para el heno de raigrás (0,463 v. 0,706) y solo numérico para la harina de girasol (0,0170 v. 0,0208). La reducción de las estimas de DIE al corregir esta contaminación fue consecuencia de la eliminación de forma casi completa de los microorganismos adherentes en todos los residuos testados. Así, esta biomasa se redujo en 96,1% como media de 7x3 observaciones. Como resultado de las diferencias acumulativas a nivel del rumen e intestino, la no corrección de la contaminación microbiana junto con la no consideración de kc condujo a fuertes sobrestimaciones de la PB digerida en el intestino. Ésta fue de 39% en la harina de girasol (0,146 v. 0,105) y de 761% en el heno de raigrás (0,373 v. 0,0433). Estos resultados muestran que es necesario considerar tanto kc como corregir la contaminación microbiana para obtener estimas in situ precisas en forrajes, mientras que en concentrados, siempre que la contaminación microbiana sea pequeña, es más importante considerar kc. La elevada contaminación microbiana observada en el heno de raigrás se asoció también con importantes errores a nivel del N asociado a la fibra neutro (FND) y ácido (FAD) detergente (NDIN y ADIN, respectivamente) e incluso de estas fracciones de fibra, evidenciándose que estos métodos no eliminan completamente la contaminación microbiana que sufren los alimentos en su paso por el retículorumen. Así, en la muestra compuesta representativa de la composición química del flujo postruminal antes descrita, la sobrevaloración por no corregir la contaminación microbiana fue de 99,8; 24,2; 3,34 y 0,48% para NDIN, ADIN, FND y FAD, respectivamente. Las subvaloraciones asociadas para su DE fueron 34,1; 8,79; 4,41 y 0,51%, respectivamente. La DE corregida del NDIN y ADIN (0,743 y 0,728, respectivamente) mostró un aprovechamiento ruminal elevado de estos compuestos, si bien menor al de la PB total (0,85). El estudio de este aprovechamiento sobre los residuos de incubación ruminal a 6 y 72 h demostró, además, una más rápida degradación del ADIN frente al NDIN, así como un mayor potencial de degradación de este último en este alimento. Para comprobar si la digestión en el abomaso eliminaba la contaminación microbiana en la FND y FAD se estudio esta contaminación y sus posibles errores en muestras liofilizadas de contenidos ruminales y duodenales correspondientes a una dieta mixta de similar composición a la utilizada en el experimento 2, comparándose, además, las diferencias entre la extracción secuencial o directa de la FAD. Utilizando como referencia las BAS se apreciaron elevadas contaminaciones en la FND y FAD y su N asociado tanto en las muestras ruminales como en las duodenales. Sin embargo, los resultados de enriquecimiento en 15N de las partículas fueron intermedios entre los correspondientes a BAS y BAL lo que evidencia una elevada contaminación con BAL en estas muestras probablemente durante el proceso de liofilización. Ello conlleva una sobrevaloración de esta estimación. El método de extracción directa de FAD se mostró, por otra parte, marcadamente menos eficaz en la eliminación de la contaminación microbiana. Los resultados muestran la necesidad de corregir la contaminación microbiana para obtener estimaciones precisas de la degradabilidad de las proteínas de las paredes celulares vegetales. Estos errores deberían ser también considerados para FND y FAD en estudios in situ e in vivo. La elevada tasa fraccional de degradación del grano de trigo (60,9 y 42,0%/h para MS y PB, respectivamente) implico que su flujo de material indegradado (calculado solo en base a la kp obtenida para la harina de girasol) se redujera muy rápidamente, de forma que es casi nulo a 8 h tras la ingestión. Los valores corregidos de PB digerida en el intestino (0,15) representan solo el 18,7% de la proteína metabolizable, lo que muestra que el valor proteico del grano de trigo está estrechamente ligado a la síntesis de proteína microbiana derivada de su fermentación. En el experimento 2 se observaron menores concentraciones para materia orgánica, lípidos y PB, así como en la proporción N-AAs/N total en BAL que en BAS, siendo, por el contrario, mayor su enriquecimiento en 15N. Estos últimos resultados se utilizaron (junto con los de otros trabajos previos de este equipo) para validar una predicción preexistente del enriquecimiento en 15N de las BAS a partir de este valor en las BAL. Esta ecuación, de muy alta precisión (R2 = 0.995), permite calcular la subvaloración que se comete en los aportes de nutrientes correspondientes a las BAS al usar las BAL como muestra de referencia. Esta subvaloración representa aproximadamente 21, 32,5 y 60% para PB, proteína verdadera y lípidos.

Changes in rumen microbes in sheep in response to dietary forage quality and relationships with fermentation characteristics

An in vitro experiment was carried out using the Hohenheim gas production technique to evaluate 24-h gas production, apparently and truly degraded dry matter (DM), partitioning factor (PF), short chain fatty acids, crude protein (CP) and carbohydrate (CHO) fractionation of grass and multipurpose tree species (MPTS) foliage diets. Four grasses and three MPTS were used to formulate 12 diets of equal mixtures (0.5:0.5 on DM basis) of each grass with each MPTS. In vitro gas production was terminated after 24 h for each diet. True DM degradability was measured from incubated samples and combined with gas volume to estimate PF. Diets had greater (P<0.001) CP (102–183 g/kg DM) content than sole grasses (66–131 g/kg DM) and lower (P<0.001) concentrations of fibre fractions. Contrary to in vitro apparently degraded DM, in vitro truly degraded DM coefficient was greater (P<0.001) in diets (0.63–0.77) than in sole grasses (0.48–0.68). The PF was on average higher in diets than in sole grasses. The proportion of potentially degradable CP fractions (A1, B1, B2 and B3, based on the Cornell Net Carbohydrate and Protein System) in the diets ranged from 971 to 989 g/kg CP. Crude protein fractions, A and B2 were greater in diets but B1 and B3 fractions were less in diets than in sole grasses. A similar trend was also observed in the CHO fractions. Results showed that the nutritive value of the four grasses was improved when MPTS leaves were incorporated into the diet and this could ensure higher productivity of the animals.

Natural and experimental oral infection of nonhuman primates by bovine spongiform encephalopathy agents

Experimental lemurs either were infected orally with the agent of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) or were maintained as uninfected control animals. Immunohistochemical examination for proteinase-resistant protein (prion protein or PrP) was performed on tissues from two infected but still asymptomatic lemurs, killed 5 months after infection, and from three uninfected control lemurs. Control tissues showed no staining, whereas PrP was detected in the infected animals in tonsil, gastrointestinal tract and associated lymphatic tissues, and spleen. In addition, PrP was detected in ventral and dorsal roots of the cervical spinal cord, and within the spinal cord PrP could be traced in nerve tracts as far as the cerebral cortex. Similar patterns of PrP immunoreactivity were seen in two symptomatic and 18 apparently healthy lemurs in three different French primate centers, all of which had been fed diets supplemented with a beef protein product manufactured by a British company that has since ceased to include beef in its veterinary nutritional products. This study of BSE-infected lemurs early in their incubation period extends previous pathogenesis studies of the distribution of infectivity and PrP in natural and experimental scrapie. The similarity of neuropathology and PrP immunostaining patterns in experimentally infected animals to those observed in both symptomatic and asymptomatic animals in primate centers suggests that BSE contamination of zoo animals may have been more widespread than is generally appreciated.

Molecular cloning and characterization of an invertebrate cellular retinoic acid binding protein

We have cloned a cDNA and gene from the tobacco hornworm, Manduca sexta, which is related to the vertebrate cellular retinoic acid binding proteins (CRABPs). CRABPs are members of the superfamily of lipid binding proteins (LBPs) and are thought to mediate the effects of retinoic acid (RA) on morphogenesis, differentiation, and homeostasis. This discovery of a Manduca sexta CRABP (msCRABP) demonstrates the presence of a CRABP in invertebrates. Compared with bovine/murine CRABP I, the deduced amino acid sequence of msCRABP is 71% homologous overall and 88% homologous for the ligand binding pocket. The genomic organization of msCRABP is conserved with other CRABP family members and the larger LBP superfamily. Importantly, the promoter region contains a motif that resembles an RA response element characteristic of the promoter region of most CRABPs analyzed. Three-dimensional molecular modeling based on postulated structural homology with bovine/murine CRABP I shows msCRABP has a ligand binding pocket that can accommodate RA. The existence of an invertebrate CRABP has significant evolutionary implications, suggesting CRABPs appeared during the evolution of the LBP superfamily well before vertebrate/invertebrate divergence, instead of much later in evolution in selected vertebrates.

Immunologic tolerance to myelin basic protein decreases stroke size after transient focal cerebral ischemia

Immune mechanisms contribute to cerebral ischemic injury. Therapeutic immunosuppressive options are limited due to systemic side effects. We attempted to achieve immunosuppression in the brain through oral tolerance to myelin basic protein (MBP). Lewis rats were fed low-dose bovine MBP or ovalbumin (1 mg, five times) before 3 h of middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). A third group of animals was sensitized to MBP but did not survive the post-stroke period. Infarct size at 24 and 96 h after ischemia was significantly less in tolerized animals. Tolerance to MBP was confirmed in vivo by a decrease in delayed-type hypersensitivity to MBP. Systemic immune responses, characterized in vitro by spleen cell proliferation to Con A, lipopolysaccharide, and MBP, again confirmed antigen-specific immunologic tolerance. Immunohistochemistry revealed transforming growth factor β1 production by T cells in the brains of tolerized but not control animals. Systemic transforming growth factor β1 levels were equivalent in both groups. Corticosterone levels 24 h after surgery were elevated in all sham-operated animals and ischemic control animals but not in ischemic tolerized animals. These results demonstrate that antigen-specific modulation of the immune response decreases infarct size after focal cerebral ischemia and that sensitization to the same antigen may actually worsen outcome.