Singularity-free space-time

We show that the solution published in the paper by Senovilla [Phys. Rev. Lett. 64, 2219 (1990)] is geodesically complete and singularity-free. We also prove that the solution satisfies the stronger energy and causality conditions, such as global hyperbolicity, the strong energy condition, causal symmetry, and causal stability. A detailed discussion about which assumptions in the singularity theorems are not satisfied is performed, and we show explicitly that the solution is in accordance with those theorems. A brief discussion of the results is given.

Affaires de patrons, usages de la frontière : géographie des réseaux marchands entre Niger, Bénin et Nigéria

Résumé L'objectif de la thèse est de comprendre le mode d'organisation économique spécifique aux petits centres urbains qui composent les espaces frontaliers sahéliens, en s'interrogeant sur leur concurrence ou leur complémentarité éventuelle à l'intérieur d'un régime de spatialité particulier. En s'appuyant sur l'exemple du carrefour économique de Gaya-Malanville-Kamba situé à la frontière entre le Niger, le Bénin et le Nigeria, il questionne le rôle de la ville-frontière ainsi que le jeu des acteurs marchands localement dominants, à partir de quatre grandes interrogations : Quelles sont les spécificités de l'Afrique sahélienne qui obligent à renouveler les approches géographiques de l'espace marchand? Quels sont les facteurs déterminants de l'activité économique frontalière? Les formes d'organisation de l'espace qui concourent à la structuration de l'économie sont-elles concurrentes ou coopératives? Les logiques économiques frontalières sont-elles compatibles avec l'orientation des programmes de développement adoptés par les pays sahéliens et leurs partenaires bi- ou multilatéraux? Dans une première partie, un modèle territorial de l'Afrique sahélienne permet de rendre compte de la prédominance des logiques circulatoires sur les logiques productives, une propriété essentielle de toute organisation économique confrontée à l'instabilité climatique. Dans une seconde partie, l'étude considère les facteurs déterminants de l'activité économique frontalière que sont le degré d'enclavement des territoires, la libre circulation des biens et des personnes, les relations concurrentielles ou coopératives qui lient les marchés ainsi que les liens clientélistes qui unissent patron et obligés. Une troisième partie est consacrée aux productions agricoles de tente organisées sous forme de coopératives paysannes ou d'initiatives privées. Une quatrième partie s'intéresse aux réseaux de l'import-export et du commerce de détail qui bénéficient de l'augmentation des besoins engendrée par l'urbanisation sahélienne. L'économie spatiale qui résulte de ces flux est organisée selon deux logiques distinctes : d'une part, les opportunités relatives à la production agricole conduisent certains investisseurs à intensifier l'irrigation pour satisfaire la demande des marchés urbains, d'autre part, les acteurs du capitalisme marchand, actifs dans l'import-export et la vente de détail, développent des réseaux informels et mobiles qui se jouent des différentiels nationaux. Les activités commerciales des villes-marchés connaissent alors des fluctuations liées aux entreprises productives et circulatoires de ces patrons, lesquelles concourent à l'organisation territoriale générale de l>Afrique sahélienne. Ces logiques évoluent dans un contexte fortement marqué par les politiques des institutions financières internationales, des agences bilatérales de coopération et des ONGs. Celles-ci se donnent pour ambition de transformer les économies, les systèmes politiques et les organisations sociales sahéliennes, en faisant la promotion du libéralisme, de la bonne gouvernance et de la société civile. Ces axes directeurs, qui constituent le champ de bataille contemporain du développement, forment un ensemble dans lequel la spécificité sahélienne notamment frontalière est rarement prise en compte. C'est pourquoi l'étude conclut en faveur d'un renouvellement des politiques de développement appliquées aux espaces frontaliers. Trois grands axes d'intervention peuvent alors être dégagés, lesquels permettent de réconcilier des acteurs et des logiques longtemps dissociés: ceux des espaces séparés par une limite administrative, ceux de la sphère urbaine et rurale et ceux du capitalisme marchand et de l'investissement agricole, en renforçant la coopération économique transfrontalière, en prenant en considération les interactions croissantes entre villes et campagnes et en appuyant les activités marchandes. Abstract: Urbanisation in West Africa is recent and fast. If only 10 % of the total population was living in urban areas in 1950, this proportion reached 40 % in 2000 and will be estimated to 60 % in 2025. Small and intermediate cities, located between the countryside and large metropolis, are particularly concerned with this process. They are nowadays considered as efficient vectors of local economic development because of fiscal or monetary disparities between states, which enable businessmen to develop particular skills based on local urban networks. The majority of theses networks are informal and extremely flexible, like in the Gaya - Malanville - Kamba region, located between Niger, Benin and Nigeria. Evidence show that this economic space is characterised by high potentialities (climatic and hydrological conditions, location on main economic West African axis) and few constraints (remoteness of some potentially high productive areas). In this context, this PhD deals with the economic relationships between the three market cities. Focusing on the links that unite the businessmen of the local markets - called patron; - it reveals the extreme flexibility of their strategies as well as the deeply informal nature of their activities. Through the analysis of examples taken from the commerce of agricultural products, import and export flows and detail activities, it studies the changes that have taken place in the city centres of Gaya, Malanville and Kamba. Meanwhile, this research shows how these cities represent a border economical area based on rival and complementary connections. In the first Part, it was necessary to reconsider the usual spatial analysis devoted to the question of economic centrality. As a matter of fact, the organisation of West African economic spaces is very flexible and mobile. Centrality is always precarious because of seasonal or temporary reasons. This is why the first chapters are devoted to the study of the specificity of the Sahelian territoriality. Two main elements are relevant: first the population diversity and second, the urban-rural linkages. In the second part, the study considers three main factors on which the cross-border economic networks are dependent: enclosure that prevents goods to reach the markets, administrative constraints that limit free trade between states and cities and the concurrent or complementary relationships between markets. A third part deals with the clientelist ties engaged between the patrons and their clients with the hypothesis that these relationships are based on reciprocity and inequality. A fourth part is devoted to' the study of the spatial organisation of commercial goods across the borders, as far as the agriculture commercial products, the import-export merchandises and the retail products are concerned. This leads to the conclusion that the economic activity is directly linked to urban growth. However, the study notices that there is a lack of efficient policies dealing with strengthening the business sector and improving the cross-border cooperation. This particularity allows us to favour new local development approaches, which would take into account the important potential of private economical actors. In the same time, the commercial flows should be regulated with the help of public policies, as long as they are specifically adapted to the problems that these areas have to deal with.

Partition coefficient and molecular flexibility: the concept of lipophilicity space.

The rationale of this study was to investigate molecular flexibility and its influence on physicochemical properties with a view to uncovering additional information on the fuzzy concept of dynamic molecular structure. Indeed, it is now known that computed molecular interaction fields (MIFs) such as molecular electrostatic potentials (MEPs) and lipophilicity potentials (MLPs) are conformation-dependent, as are dipole moments. A database of 125 compounds was used whose conformational space was explored, while conformation-dependent parameters were computed for each non-redundant conformer found in the conformational space of the compounds. These parameters were the virtual log P (log P(MLP), calculated by a MLP approach), the apolar surface area (ASA), polar surface area (PSA), and solvent-accessible surface (SAS). For each compound, the range taken by each parameter (its property space) was divided by the number of rotors taken as an index of flexibility, yielding a parameter termed 'molecular sensitivity'. This parameter was poorly correlated with others (i.e., it contains novel information) and showed the compounds to fall into two broad classes. 'Sensitive' molecules are those whose computed property ranges are markedly sensitive to conformational effects, whereas 'insensitive' (in fact, less sensitive) molecules have property ranges which are comparatively less affected by conformational fluctuations. A pharmacokinetic application is presented.

Endocytosis, autophagy and JNK inhibition in neuroprotection against excitotoxicity and neonatal cerebral ischemia

Abstract : Neonatal stroke occurs in 1 out of 4000 live births and usually leads to serious motor and cognitive disabilities. Ischemic brain injury results from a complex of pathophysiological events that evolve over space and time making it difficult to devise successful therapy. To date, there are no effective treatments for perinatal brain damage. Most clinical trials of neuroprotectaot drugs have failed because of their side-effects. For this reason it is important to find ways to target drugs specifically into the stressed cells. In this study we plan to contribute to the development of an efficient neuroprotective strategy against excitotoxic cell death in the neonate. In order to achieve this goal, several strategies were followed. A recently described phenomenon of induced endocytosis associated with excitotoxicity was more deeply investigated. As a simplified model we used dissociated cortical neurons exposed to an excitotoxic dose of NMDA, and we showed that this phenomenon depends on clathrin and dynamin. Using a model of neonatal focal cerebral ischemia, we demonstrated that the excitotoxicity-related endocytosis targets molecules such as TAT peptides into stressed neurons. These appear to be viable, raising the possibility of using this phenomenon as a doorway for neuroprotection. One part of the project was devoted to the study of the TAT-conjugated JNK inhibitory peptide, D-JNKI1. Adose-response study showed strong neuroprotection over a wide dose-range in the case of delayed administration (either intravenous or intraperitoneal). Since D-JNKI1 is aTAT-linked peptide, we investigated the role of its own NMDA-induced endocytosis in its neuroprotective efficacy. Furthermore, we showed that this endocytosis is JNK dependent, and that D-JNKI1 regulates its own uptake. We additionally studied the different types of cell death involved in a model of neonatal focal cerebral ischemia. Necrosis occurred rapidly in the center of the lesion whereas apoptosis and autophagic cell death occurred late at the lesion border. Inhibiting apoptosis was not protective, but use of autophagy inhibitor 3methyladenine provided a strong neuroprotection. Finally, combining two neuroprotectants that target different intracellular pathways was neuroprotective in a severe model of cerebral ischemia where neither of the drugs was efficient when administered individually. Résumé : L'ischémie néonatale connaît une incidence de 1 naissance sur 4000, entraînant généralement de sérieux dysfonctionnements moteurs et cognitifs. L'ischémie cérébrale résulte d'évènements physiopathologiques complexes qui évoluent dans l'espace et le temps rendant difficile la conception de thérapies efficaces. A l'heure actuelle, aucun traitement n'existe pour lutter contre les accidents vasculaires cérébraux qui se produisent autour de la naissance. La plupart des essais cliniques concernant des molécules neuroprotectrices ont échoué du fait de leurs effets secondaires néfastes. Pour cette raison, il est important de trouver des moyens de cibler les drogues dans les cellules stressées spécifiquement. Dans cette étude nous visons à participer au développement d'une stratégie neuroprotectrice efficace contre l'ischémie cérébrale chez le nouveau-né. Dans ce but, plusieurs stratégies ont été poursuivies. Un nouveau phénomène d'endocytose induite par un stimulus excitotoxique a été récemment décrit. Une partie de cette étude va consister à mieux comprendre ce phénomène. Pour céla, nous avons utilisé comme modèle d'étude simplifié des cultures dissociées de neurones corticaux exposées à une dose excitotoxique de NMDA. Nous avons ainsi montré que cette endocytose associée à l'excitotoxicité dépend de la clathrine et de la dynamine. A l'aide d'un modèle d'ischémie cérébrale focale chez le raton de 12 jours, nous avons démontré que cette endocytose induite par l'excitotoxicité permet de cibler des molécules diverses et en particulier les peptides TAT dans les neurones stressés. Ces neurones fortement endocytiques apparaissent comme étant encore viables, ouvrant la possibilité d'utiliser cette endocytose comme moyen d'entrée pour des molécules thérapeutiques. Une partie du projet a été consacrée à l'étude d'un inhibiteur de la voie JNK, couplé au TAT, appelé D-JNKI1. Des études de dose réponse du D-JNKI1 ont été réalisées chez l'animal, testant les effets d'une administration retardée en injection intraveineuse ou intra péritonéale. Ces études démontrent qu'une large gamme de dose permet d'obCenir une réduction de la taille de la lésion. Comme D-JNK11 est couplé au peptide TAT, nous avons étudié la contribution que sa propre endocytose lors de l'excitotoxicité apporte à ses effets protecteurs. Par ailleurs, nous avons montré que cette endocytose induite par l'excitotoxicité dépend de la voie de signalisation JNK et que D-JNK11 est donc capable de réguler sa propre entrée. Nous avons en parallèle étudié les différents types de mort cellulaires impliqués dans le développement de la lésion dans un modèle sévère d'ischémie cérébrale chez le raton nouveau-né. La mort cellulaire par nécrose se développe rapidement dans le centre de la lésion alors que les morts cellulaires par apoptose et autophagique vont apparaître plus tard et au bord de la lésion. Inhiber l'apoptose n'a pas permis de réduire la taille de la lésion alors que l'utilisation d'un inhibiteur d'autophagie, la 3-méthyladénine, procure une forte neuroprotection. Finalement, la combinaison de deux peptides qui ciblent différentes voies de signalisation intracellulaire permet d'obtenir une bonne protection dans le modèle d'ischémie sévère dans lequel aucun des deux peptides administré séparément n'a donné d'effets bénéfiques.

Shift in cytotype frequency and niche space in the invasive plant Centaurea maculosa.

Polyploidy is often assumed to increase the spread and thus the success of alien plant species, but few empirical studies exist. We tested this hypothesis with Centaurea maculosa Lam., a species native to Europe and introduced into North America approximately 120 years ago where it became highly invasive. We analyzed the ploidy level of more than 2000 plants from 93 native and 48 invasive C. maculosa populations and found a pronounced shift in the relative frequency of diploid and tetraploid cytotypes. In Europe diploid populations occur in higher frequencies than tetraploids and only four populations had both cytotypes, while in North America diploid plants were found in only one mixed population and thus tetraploids clearly dominated. Our results showed a pronounced shift in the climatic niche between tetraploid populations in the native and introduced range toward drier climate in North America and a similar albeit smaller shift between diploids and tetraploids in the native range. The field data indicate that diploids have a predominately monocarpic life cycle, while tetraploids are often polycarpic. Additionally, the polycarpic life-form seems to be more prevalent among tetraploids in the introduced range than among tetraploids in the native range. Our study suggests that both ploidy types of C. maculosa were introduced into North America, but tetraploids became the dominant cytotype with invasion. We suggest that the invasive success of C. maculosa is partly due to preadaptation of the tetraploid cytotype in Europe to drier climate and possibly further adaptation to these conditions in the introduced range. The potential for earlier and longer seed production associated with the polycarpic life cycle constitutes an additional factor that may have led to the dominance of tetraploids over diploids in the introduced range.

Space and momentum representation analysis of Hartman's effect in wave packet transmission

The Hartman effect is analyzed in both the position and momentum representations of the problem. The importance of Wigner tunneling and deep tunneling is singled out. It is shown quantitatively how the barrier acts as a filter for low momenta (quantum speed up) as the width increases, and a detailed mechanism is proposed. Superluminal transmission is also discussed.

The reconstruction of social meaning in the space of flows

Artikkeli on alunperin julkaistu teoksessa: The informational city (1989) / Manuel Castells

European integration, FDI and the internal geography of trade : evidence from Western European border regions

In this paper we use a gravity model to study the trade performance of French and Spanishborder regions relatively to non-border regions, over the past two decades. We find that,controlling for their size, proximity and location characteristics, border regions trade onaverage between 62% and 193% more with their neighbouring country than other regions,and twice as much if they are endowed with good cross border transport infrastructures.Despite European integration, however, this trade outperformance has fallen for the mostperipheral regions within the EU. We show that this trend was linked in part to a shift in the propensity of foreign investors to move their affiliates from the regions near their home market to the regions bordering the EU core.