Small-scale Fisheries and the Global Economy: Understanding Common-pool Resource Governance in the Context of Market Pressures, Neoliberal Policies, and Transnational Institutions

The purpose of this dissertation is to contribute to a better understanding of how global seafood trade interacts with the governance of small-scale fisheries (SSFs). As global seafood trade expands, SSFs have the potential to experience significant economic, social, and political benefits from participation in export markets. At the same time, market connections that place increasing pressures on resources pose risks to both the ecological and social integrity of SSFs. This dissertation seeks to explore the factors that mediate between the potential benefits and risks of global seafood markets for SSFs, with the goal of developing hypotheses regarding these relationships.

The empirical investigation consists of a series of case studies from the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. This is a particularly rich context in which to study global market connections with SSFs because the SSFs in this region engage in a variety of market-oriented harvests, most notably for octopus, groupers and snappers, lobster, and sea cucumber. Variation in market forms and the institutional diversity of local-level governance arrangements allows the dissertation to explore a number of examples.

The analysis is guided primarily by common-pool resource (CPR) theory because of the insights it provides regarding the conditions that facilitate collective action and the factors that promote long-lasting resource governance arrangements. Theory from institutional economics and political ecology contribute to the elaboration of a multi-faceted conceptualization of markets for CPR theory, with the aim of facilitating the identification of mechanisms through which markets and CPR governance actually interact. This dissertation conceptualizes markets as sets of institutions that structure the exchange of property rights over fisheries resources, affect the material incentives to harvest resources, and transmit ideas and values about fisheries resources and governance.

The case studies explore four different mechanisms through which markets potentially influence resource governance: 1) Markets can contribute to costly resource governance activities by offsetting costs through profits, 2) markets can undermine resource governance by generating incentives for noncompliance and lead to overharvesting resources, 3) markets can increase the costs of resource governance, for example by augmenting monitoring and enforcement burdens, and 4) markets can alter values and norms underpinning resource governance by transmitting ideas between local resource users and a variety of market actors.

Data collected using participant observation, survey, informal and structured interviews contributed to the elaboration of the following hypotheses relevant to interactions between global seafood trade and SSFs governance. 1) Roll-back neoliberalization of fisheries policies has undermined cooperatives’ ability to achieve financial success through engagement with markets and thus their potential role as key actors in resource governance (chapter two). 2) Different relations of production influence whether local governance institutions will erode or strengthen when faced with market pressures. In particular, relations of production in which fishers own their own means of production and share the collective costs of governance are more likely to strengthen resource governance while relations of production in which a single entrepreneur controls capital and access to the fishery are more likely to contribute to the erosion of resource governance institutions in the face of market pressures (chapter three). 3) By serving as a new discursive framework within which to conceive of and talk about fisheries resources, markets can influence norms and values that shape and constitute governance arrangements.

In sum, the dissertation demonstrates that global seafood trade manifests in a diversity of local forms and effects. Whether SSFs moderate risks and take advantage of benefits depends on a variety of factors, and resource users themselves have the potential to influence the outcomes of seafood market connections through local forms of collective action.

Unraveling the function of bacterial-type phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase in vascular plants

Two distinct phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPC) isozymes occur in vascular plants and green algae: plant-type PEPC (PTPC) and bacterial-type PEPC (BTPC). PTPC polypeptides typically form a tightly regulated cytosolic Class-1 PEPC homotetramer. BTPCs, however, appear to be less widely expressed and to exist only as catalytic and regulatory subunits that physically interact with co-expressed PTPC subunits to form hetero-octameric Class-2 PEPC complexes that are highly desensitized to Class-1 PEPC allosteric effectors. Yeast two-hybrid studies indicated that castor plant BTPC (RcPPC4) interacts with all three Arabidopsis thaliana PTPC isozymes, and that it forms stronger interactions with AtPPC2 and AtPPC3, suggesting that specific PTPCs are preferred for Class-2 PEPC formation. In contrast, Arabidopsis BTPC (AtPPC4) appeared to interact very weakly with AtPPC2 and AtPPC3, suggesting that BTPCs from different species may have different physical properties, hypothesized to be due to sequence dissimilarities within their ~10 kDa intrinsically disordered region. Recent RNA-seq and microarray data were analyzed to obtain a better understanding of BTPC expression patterns in different tissues of various monocot and dicot species. High levels of BTPC transcripts, polypeptides and Class-2 PEPC complexes were originally discovered in developing castor seeds, but the analysis revealed a broad range of diverse tissues where abundant BTPC transcripts are also expressed, such as the developing fruits of cucumber, grape, and tomato. Marked BTPC expression correlated well with the presence of ~116 kDa immunoreactive BTPC polypeptides, as well as Class-2 PEPC complexes in the immature fruit of cucumbers and tomatoes. It is therefore hypothesized that in vascular plants BTPC and thus Class-2 PEPC complexes maintain anaplerotic PEP flux in tissues with elevated malate levels that would potently inhibit ‘housekeeping’ Class-1 PEPCs. Elevated levels of malate can be used by biosynthetically active sink tissues such as immature tomatoes and cucumbers for rapid cell expansion, drought or salt stressed roots for osmoregulation, and developing seeds and pollen as a precursor for storage lipid and protein biosynthesis.

Extending Automated Testing To High-level Software Requirements : A study on the feasibility of automated acceptance-testing

Automated acceptance testing is the testing of software done in higher level to test whether the system abides by the requirements desired by the business clients by the use of piece of script other than the software itself. This project is a study of the feasibility of acceptance tests written in Behavior Driven Development principle. The project includes an implementation part where automated accep- tance testing is written for Touch-point web application developed by Dewire (a software consultant company) for Telia (a telecom company) from the require- ments received from the customer (Telia). The automated acceptance testing is in Cucumber-Selenium framework which enforces Behavior Driven Development principles. The purpose of the implementation is to verify the practicability of this style of acceptance testing. From the completion of implementation, it was concluded that all the requirements from customer in real world can be converted into executable specifications and the process was not at all time-consuming or difficult for a low-experienced programmer like the author itself. The project also includes survey to measure the learnability and understandability of Gherkin- the language that Cucumber understands. The survey consist of some Gherkin exam- ples followed with questions that include making changes to the Gherkin exam- ples. Survey had 3 parts: first being easy, second medium and third most difficult. Survey also had a linear scale from 1 to 5 to rate the difficulty level for each part of the survey. 1 stood for very easy and 5 for very difficult. Time when the partic- ipants began the survey was also taken in order to calculate the total time taken by the participants to learn and answer the questions. Survey was taken by 18 of the employers of Dewire who had primary working role as one of the programmer, tester and project manager. In the result, tester and project manager were grouped as non-programmer. The survey concluded that it is very easy and quick to learn Gherkin. While the participants rated Gherkin as very easy.

Una planta sin clásicos. La berenjena en la farmacología medieval y renacentista

La berenjena (Solanum melongena L.) es una planta solanácea de múltiples variedades, cuyos ancestros salvajes se sitúan en Indochina y el este de África. Su cultivo fue muy temprano en zonas de China e India. Aun así, no se extendió al Occidente antiguo ni apenas se conoció, de ahí su ausencia en los textos clásicos de botánica y farmacología. Fueron los árabes quienes llevaron el cultivo de la planta por el Norte de África y Al-Andalus, de donde pasó ya a Europa. Los primeros testimonios occidentales de la berenjena aparecen en traducciones latinas de textos árabes, para incorporarse luego a la literatura farmacológica medieval y, más tarde ya, a la del Renacimiento, que empezó a tratar de ella por su posible parecido con una especie de mandrágora. Pese a que se le reconocían algunas virtudes medicinales, siempre se la tuvo bajo sospecha por ser de sabor poco agradable, indigesta y causante de algunas afecciones. Solo los botánicos de finales del Renacimiento describirían la planta y sus variedades con criterios más «científicos» y botánicos, ya sin apenas intereses farmacológicos.

Quitosana na indução de resistência ao tombamento de plântulas de espécies olerícolas e no controle de fitopatógenos in vitro

Induction of resistance is defined as the activation of a state of resistance against diseases which is induced systemically in plants by the use of biotic or abiotic agents without any modification of the plant genome, occurring non-specific way, by activating genes coding for various plant defense responses. Chitosan is a polymer derived from the deacetylation of chitin, which is found in large quantities in crustacean shell, and studied with the potential to control plant pathogens, both by its direct fungistatic action, as the ability to induce protection of plants, indicating the presence of molecules of elicitoras characteristics. Three experiments with objective of evaluating the potential of chitosan in the seedling resistance induction were developed, beet (Beta vulgaris) seeds, cucumber (Cucumis sativus) seeds and tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) seeds, and the control of Fusarium sp., Rhizoctonia solani K¨uhn e Pythium sp. in vitro conditions. The experimental design was completely randomized, with four replications. Beet seeds, tomato and cucumber were submerged in chitosan solution for 20 minutes, in concentrations of 0.25, 0.5, 1 and 2% in the control and distilled water. Seeds were sown in trays containing Plantmax Florestalr substrate sterilized and inoculated with Fusarium sp., Rhizoctonia solani K¨unh and Pythium sp., respectively for the three cultures. The experiment was conducted for 14 days in growth chamber with controlled temperature (25 C 2 C), light (12 hour photoperiod) and humidity (70% 10%). The evaluations were seed emergency, seedling damping-off, seedling length, fresh weight and activity of the enzymes phenylalanine amˆonia-liase (PAL), chitinase and b-1,3-glucanase. It was also rated the mycelial growth of Fusarium sp., Pythium sp. and R. solani on P.D.A. (Potato-Dextrose and Agar) culture medium containing chitosan at the same concentrations evaluated in seeds. For beet growing, seed treatment with chitosan presented higher emergence and the length of the seedlings, and reduced the percentage of tipping. Treatment with chitosan activated the systemic acquired resistance with expression of chitinase and b-1,3-glucanase enzymes. For the tomato crop in chitosan concentration of 0.25% favored the emergency of seedlings, reduced the incidence of tipping and activated the PAL enzymes, chitinase and b-1,3-glucanase. In cucumber on the concentration of up 0.5% favored seedlings emergence and reduces the incidence of tipping. Chitosan activated the PAL enzymes and b-1,3-glucanase. Chitosan also presented fungistatic action on the initial growth of Pythium sp. and R. solani in vitro conditions, however, such action did not prevail until the end of the experiment. To Fusarium sp. the concentration of chitosan resulted in the reduction of mycelial growth in vitro.

Potencial do óleo de Aloysia citriodora Palau no controle de fitopatógenos e na indução de resistência ao tombamento de plântulas de feijão, pepino e beterraba

The crops are affected by pests and diseases that decrease productivity. Among them are the damping off of seedlings that can occur in pre and post-emergence. In bean crops, cucumber and beet these diseases occur, being caused by various pathogens, especialy fitopathogenic fungi. Several measures are used for the controle of such diseases, among them, is the chemical seed treatment fungicides. However, society has become increasingly concerned about the quality and food and environmental contamination, generation a growting search for sensitive products to humans and the environment. The use of essential oils to control plant pathogens is an example of alternative tested by science in the search for less aggressive technologies. This study aimed to evaluate the efficiency of the use of essential oil Aloysia citriodora, in control of pathogens causing damping off in beans, cucumber and beet. This thesis was divided in four chapters, the introductory first, and the other addressing the control of Pythium sp. in beans, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum on cucumber, and Fusarium sp. on beet. The methodology consisted of four experiments in each pathosystem, with all the work done at the Federal Technological University of Parana, Campus Dois Vizinhos. In the first experiment evaluated the fungistatic and fungicidal effect of the essential oil of A. citriodora on PDA in vitro in mycelial growth of pathogens studied. In the second experiment evaluated the in vitro effect of essential oil concentrations of A. citriodora in BD medium on microscope slides, on the germination of sporangia Pythium sp. and conidia Fusarium sp., and in Petri dishes with PDA medium, the sclerotia germination speed index of S. sclerotiorum. In the third experiment, we evaluated in germination test in paper roll (PR), the phytotoxic effect or not the use of essential oil concentrations of A. citriodora in dry bean seed, cucumber and beet. The variables used to assess this experiment were the germination percentage, mediun green mass per plant and average length of seedlings. In the fourth experiment we assessed the effect of treating bean seeds, cucumber and beet with essential oil contents of A. citriodora, seeds in their subsequent substrates contamined with pathogens studied, Pythium sp., S. sclerotiorum and Fusarium sp. In this experiment we used the following variables: percentage of emergence, percentage of post-emergence damping off, green average mass per plant, average length per plant and biochemical analyzes. The biochemistry of plant tissues evaluated were as follows: protein content, enzymatic activities of peroxidases, phenylalanine ammonia-liase (PAL), chitinases and β-1,3-glucanases. The in vitro results show that the essential oil has fungistatic and fungicidal effect on mycelial growth, on sporangia germination, conidia and sclerotia of the pathogens studied in this work, wich may be related to its major components, citral and limonene. The oil also exhibits low phytotoxicity to seeds of the species studied, only in beans decreases germination in most studied dosage (0,25%), cucumber also in the higher dosage (0,25%) reduce the length of seedlings, and beet there were no negative effects to the seedlings. In the test in substrate contaminated with the pathogens, the use of essential oil: increased germination and decreased post emergence damping off of beans seedlings; at a concentration of 0,0625% decreases post emergence damping off in cucumber. In biochemical analyzes found an increase in the enzymatic activity of peroxidases and β-1,3-glucanases on beans, and glucanases on cucumber, and increased enzyme activity of peroxidases on beet, showing action in resistance induction at damping off.

Comparison of host range and pathogenicity of isolates of Pythium myriotylum and Pythium zingiberis

Apart from morphology and genetic characteristics, species status of Pythium zingiberis and P. myriotylum may also be confirmed based on their pathogenicity and host range. An Australian putative P. zingiberis isolate and imported type isolates of P. myriotylum and P. zingiberis were subject to both in vitro and in vivo pathogenicity tests. In vitro tests were carried out on excised carrot, ginger, potato, radish, and sweet potato tuber/root sections, and on seeds and seedlings of cucumber, cauliflower, millet, rye, sweet corn, tomato, and wheat. In all assays conducted, the Australian isolate was found to be the most pathogenic, followed by type specimen of P. zingiberis (UOP 275), and then the type specimen P. myriotylum (CBS 254.70). An in vivo experiment on ginger plants at 35°C (with 10 h day light) in quarantine conditions showed that the ginger plants inoculated with the Australian isolate and also the type specimen of P. zingiberis died at 21 days after inoculation, whereas those inoculated with P. myriotylum CBS 254.70 were still green and healthy. Along with cardinal growth rate, the Australian isolate was confirmed to be closely related to P. zingiberis. This is also the first direct comparison in pathogenicity of P. zingiberis and P. myriotylum.

Farmers’ Market Nutrition Program Recipe Cards

These are cards giving recipes for fruit and vegetable dishes. Recipes include: confetti bean salsa, Mediterranean quinoa salad, minty watermelon cucumber salad, quick refrigerator pickles, broccoli salad, apple, cranberry and almond coleslaw, farmers’ market pasta salad, roasted beet and butter bean hummus, spinach and strawberry pecan salad, okra, avocado and tomato salad, plum-berry mint smoothie and crispy baked vegetables.

Quantification of the effects of architectural traits on dry mass production and light interception of tomato canopy under different temperature regimes using a dynamic functional-structural plant model

There is increasing interest in evaluating the environmental effects on crop architectural traits and yield improvement. However, crop models describing the dynamic changes in canopy structure with environmental conditions and the complex interactions between canopy structure, light interception, and dry mass production are only gradually emerging. Using tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) as a model crop, a dynamic functional-structural plant model (FSPM) was constructed, parameterized, and evaluated to analyse the effects of temperature on architectural traits, which strongly influence canopy light interception and shoot dry mass. The FSPM predicted the organ growth, organ size, and shoot dry mass over time with high accuracy (>85%). Analyses of this FSPM showed that, in comparison with the reference canopy, shoot dry mass may be affected by leaf angle by as much as 20%, leaf curvature by up to 7%, the leaf length: width ratio by up to 5%, internode length by up to 9%, and curvature ratios and leaf arrangement by up to 6%. Tomato canopies at low temperature had higher canopy density and were more clumped due to higher leaf area and shorter internodes. Interestingly, dry mass production and light interception of the clumped canopy were more sensitive to changes in architectural traits. The complex interactions between architectural traits, canopy light interception, dry mass production, and environmental conditions can be studied by the dynamic FSPM, which may serve as a tool for designing a canopy structure which is 'ideal' in a given environment.

A Modeling Approach to Quantify the Effects of Stomatal Behavior and Mesophyll Conductance on Leaf Water Use Efficiency

Water use efficiency (WUE) is considered as a determinant of yield under stress and a component of crop drought resistance. Stomatal behavior regulates both transpiration rate and net assimilation and has been suggested to be crucial for improving crop WUE. In this work, a dynamic model was used to examine the impact of dynamic properties of stomata on WUE. The model includes sub-models of stomatal conductance dynamics, solute accumulation in the mesophyll, mesophyll water content, and water flow to the mesophyll. Using the instantaneous value of stomatal conductance, photosynthesis, and transpiration rate were simulated using a biochemical model and Penman-Monteith equation, respectively. The model was parameterized for a cucumber leaf and model outputs were evaluated using climatic data. Our simulations revealed that WUE was higher on a cloudy than a sunny day. Fast stomatal reaction to light decreased WUE during the period of increasing light (e.g., in the morning) by up to 10.2% and increased WUE during the period of decreasing light (afternoon) by up to 6.25%. Sensitivity of daily WUE to stomatal parameters and mesophyll conductance to CO2 was tested for sunny and cloudy days. Increasing mesophyll conductance to CO2 was more likely to increase WUE for all climatic conditions (up to 5.5% on the sunny day) than modifications of stomatal reaction speed to light and maximum stomatal conductance.

Predicting Plant Performance Under Simultaneously Changing Environmental Conditions-The Interplay Between Temperature, Light, and Internode Growth

Plant performance is significantly influenced by prevailing light and temperature conditions during plant growth and development. For plants exposed to natural fluctuations in abiotic environmental conditions it is however laborious and cumbersome to experimentally assign any contribution of individual environmental factors to plant responses. This study aimed at analyzing the interplay between light, temperature and internode growth based on model approaches. We extended the light-sensitive virtual plant model L-Cucumber by implementing a common Arrhenius function for appearance rates, growth rates, and growth durations. For two greenhouse experiments, the temperature-sensitive model approach resulted in a precise prediction of cucumber mean internode lengths and number of internodes, as well as in accurately predicted patterns of individual internode lengths along the main stem. In addition, a system's analysis revealed that environmental data averaged over the experimental period were not necessarily related to internode performance. Finally, the need for a species-specific parameterization of the temperature response function and related aspects in modeling temperature effects on plant development and growth is discussed.

Bacterial communities of the specialty crop phyllosphere: response to biological soil amendment use, rainfall, and insect visitation

Microorganisms in the plant rhizosphere, the zone under the influence of roots, and phyllosphere, the aboveground plant habitat, exert a strong influence on plant growth, health, and protection. Tomatoes and cucumbers are important players in produce safety, and the microbial life on their surfaces may contribute to their fitness as hosts for foodborne pathogens such as Salmonella enterica and Listeria monocytogenes. External factors such as agricultural inputs and environmental conditions likely also play a major role. However, the relative contributions of the various factors at play concerning the plant surface microbiome remain obscure, although this knowledge could be applied to crop protection from plant and human pathogens. Recent advances in genomic technology have made investigations into the diversity and structure of microbial communities possible in many systems and at multiple scales. Using Illumina sequencing to profile particular regions of the 16S rRNA gene, this study investigates the influences of climate and crop management practices on the field-grown tomato and cucumber microbiome. The first research chapter (Chapter 3) involved application of 4 different soil amendments to a tomato field and profiling of harvest-time phyllosphere and rhizosphere microbial communities. Factors such as water activity, soil texture, and field location influenced microbial community structure more than soil amendment use, indicating that field conditions may exert more influence on the tomato microbiome than certain agricultural inputs. In Chapter 4, the impact of rain on tomato and cucumber-associated microbial community structures was evaluated. Shifts in bacterial community composition and structure were recorded immediately following rain events, an effect which was partially reversed after 4 days and was strongest on cucumber fruit surfaces. Chapter 5 focused on the contribution of insect visitors to the tomato microbiota, finding that insects introduced diverse bacterial taxa to the blossom and green tomato fruit microbiome. This study advances our understanding of the factors that influence the microbiomes of tomato and cucumber. Farms are complex environments, and untangling the interactions between farming practices, the environment, and microbial diversity will help us develop a comprehensive understanding of how microbial life, including foodborne pathogens, may be influenced by agricultural conditions.

Genetic differentiation among Parastichopus regalis populations in the Western Mediterranean Sea: potential effects from its fishery and current connectivity

Parastichopus regalis (Cuvier, 1817) is the most expensive seafood product on the Catalonian market (NE Spain), with prices at approximately 130 €/Kg (fresh weight). Despite its ecological and economic importance, biological and genetic information on this sea cucumber species is scarce. Here, we provide both the first insight on the genetic structure of P. regalis using sequences of cytochrome oxidase I (COI) and 16S genes and a morphological description of its population. Individual sea cucumbers were collected in six locations along the Spanish Mediterranean coast, including an area under fishery pressure (Catalonia). We found high haplotype diversity and low nucleotide diversity for both genes, with higher levels of genetic diversity observed in the COI gene. The population pairwise fixation index (FST), AMOVA and correspondence analysis (CA) based on the COI gene revealed significant genetic differentiation among some locations. However, further analysis using nuclear markers (e.g., microsatellites) is necessary to corroborate these results. Moreover, the genetic and morphological data may indicate fishery effects on the Catalonian population with a decrease in the size and weight averages and lower genetic diversity compared with locations that lack fishery pressure. For the appropriate management of this species, we suggest the following: 1) accurately assessing the stock status along the Spanish coasts; 2) studying the reproductive cycle of this target species and the establishment of a closed fishery season according to the reproductive cycle; and 3) establishing protected areas (i.e., not take zones) to conserve healthy populations and favour recruitment in the nearby areas.

Spatial distribution patterns and movements of Holothuria arguinensis in the Ria Formosa (Portugal)

Holothurian populations are under pressure worldwide because of increasing demand for beche-de-mer, mainly for Asian consumption. Importations to this area from new temperate fishing grounds provide economic opportunities but also raise concerns regarding future over-exploitation. Studies on the habitat preferences and movements of sea cucumbers are important for the management of sea cucumber stocks and sizing of no-take zones, but information on the ecology and behavior of temperate sea cucumbers is scarce. This study describes the small-scale distribution and movement patterns of Holothuria arguinensis in the intertidal zone of the Ria Formosa national park (Portugal).Mark/recapture studieswere performed to record theirmovements over time on different habitats (sand and seagrass). H. arguinensis preferred seagrass habitats and did not show a size or life stage-related spatial segregation. Its density was 563 ind. ha−1 and mean movement speed was 10 m per day. Movement speed did not differ between habitats and the direction of movement was offshore during the day and shoreward during the night. Median home range size was 35 m2 and overlap among home ranges was 84%. H. arguinensis' high abundance, close association with seagrass and easy catchability in the intertidal zone, indicate the importance of including intertidal lagoons in future studies on temperate sea cucumber ecology since those systems might require different management strategies than fully submerged habitats.