Mulch materials in processing tomato: a multivariate approach.

Mulch materials of different origins have been introduced into the agricultural sector in recent years alternatively to the standard polyethylene due to its environmental impact. This study aimed to evaluate the multivariate response of mulch materials over three consecutive years in a processing tomato (Solanum lycopersicon L.) crop in Central Spain. Two biodegradable plastic mulches (BD1, BD2), one oxo-biodegradable material (OB), two types of paper (PP1, PP2), and one barley straw cover (BS) were compared using two control treatments (standard black polyethylene [PE] and manual weed control [MW]). A total of 17 variables relating to yield, fruit quality, and weed control were investigated. Several multivariate statistical techniques were applied, including principal component analysis, cluster analysis, and discriminant analysis. A group of mulch materials comprised of OB and BD2 was found to be comparable to black polyethylene regarding all the variables considered. The weed control variables were found to be an important source of discrimination. The two paper mulches tested did not share the same treatment group membership in any case: PP2 presented a multivariate response more similar to the biodegradable plastics, while PP1 was more similar to BS and MW. Based on our multivariate approach, the materials OB and BD2 can be used as an effective, more environmentally friendly alternative to polyethylene mulches.

Expresión de la resistencia en plantas de tomate a nematodos formadores de nódulos (Meloidogyne javanica)

La resistencia genética mediada por los genes R es uno de los sistemas de defensa de las plantas frente a patógenos y se activa una vez que los patógenos han superado la defensa basal que otorgan la cutícula y pared celular. Los mecanismos de resistencia genética se inician a su vez, por el reconocimiento de productos derivados de genes de avirulencia de los patógenos (avr) por parte de las proteínas R. Tanto la respuesta de defensa basal como la respuesta de defensa por genes R están influenciadas por patrones de regulación hormonal, que incluye a las principales hormonas vegetales ácido salicílico (SA), ácido jasmónico (JA) y etileno (ET). En tomate (Solanum lycopersicum) uno de los genes R es el gen MiG1, que confiere resistencia a nematodos formadores de nódulos (Meloidogyne javanica, M. incognita y M. arenaria). Uno de los eventos más importantes que caracterizan a la respuesta de resistencia es la reacción hipersensible (HR), que está mediada por la activación temprana de una serie de sistemas enzimáticos, entre los que destaca el de las peroxidasas (PRXs) Clase III. Su función es importante tanto para limitar el establecimiento y expansión del nematodo, al generar ambientes altamente tóxicos por su contribución en la producción masiva de ROS, como por su implicación en la síntesis y depósito de lignina generando barreras estructurales en el sitio de infección. Además de estos mecanismos de defensa asociados a la resistencia constitutiva, las plantas pueden desarrollar resistencia sistémica adquirida (SAR) que en la naturaleza ocurre, en ocasiones, en una fase posterior a que la planta haya sufrido el ataque de un patógeno. Así mismo hay diferentes productos de origen químico como el benzotiadiazol o BTH (ácido S-metil benzol-(1,2,3)-tiadiozole-7-carbónico ester) que pueden generar esta misma respuesta SAR. Como resultado, la planta adquiere resistencia sistémica frente a nuevos ataques de patógenos. En este contexto, el presente trabajo aborda en primer lugar el análisis comparativo, mediante microarrays de oligonucleótidos, de los transcriptomas de los sistemas radicales de plantas de tomate de 8 semanas de edad de dos variedades, una portadora del gen de resistencia MiG1 (Motelle) y otra carente del mismo y, por tanto, susceptible (Moneymaker), antes y después de la infección por M. javanica. Previo a la infección se observó que la expresión de un gran número de transcritos era más acusada en la variedad resistente que en la susceptible, entre ellos el propio gen MiG1 o los genes PrG1 (o P4), LEJA1 y ER24, lo que indica que, en ausencia de infección, las rutas hormonales del SA, JA y ET están más activas en la raíz de la variedad resistente. Por el contrario, un número mucho menor de transcritos presentaban su expresión más reducida en Motelle que en Moneymaker, destacando un gen de señalización para sintetizar la hormona giberelina (GA). La infección por M. javanica causa importantes cambios transcripcionales en todo el sistema radical que modifican sustancialmente las diferencias basales entre plantas Motelle y Moneymaker, incluida la sobreexpresión en la variedad resistente de los transcritos de MiG1, que se reduce parcialmente, mientras que las rutas hormonales del SA y el JA continuan más activas que en la susceptible (evidente por los genes PrG1 y LEJA1). Además, los cambios asociados a la infección del nematodo se evidencian por las grandes diferencias entre los dos tiempos post-infección considerados, de tal forma que en la fase temprana (2 dpi) de la interacción compatible predomina la sobreexpresión de genes de pared celular y en la tardía (12 dpi) los relacionados con el ARN. En el análisis de la interacción incompatible, aunque también hay muchas diferencias entre ambas fases, hay que destacar la expresión diferencial común de los genes loxA y mcpi (sobrexpresados) y del gen loxD (reprimido) por su implicación en defensa en otras interacciones planta-patógeno. Cabe destacar que entre las interacciones compatible e incompatible hubo muy pocos genes en común. En la etapa temprana de la interacción compatible destacó la activación de genes de pared celular y la represión de la señalización; en cambio, en la interacción incompatible hubo proteínas principalmente implicadas en defensa. A los 12 días, en la interacción compatible los genes relacionados con el ARN y la pared celular se sobreexpresaban principalmente, y se reprimían los de proteínas y transporte, mientras que en la incompatible se sobreexpresaron los relacionados con el estrés, el metabolismo secundario y el de hormonas y se reprimieron los de ARN, señalización, metabolismo de hormonas y proteínas. Por otra parte, la técnica de silenciamiento génico VIGS reveló que el gen TGA 1a está implicado en la resistencia mediada por el gen MiG1a M. javanica. Así mismo se evaluó el transcriptoma de todo el sistema radical de la variedad susceptible tras la aplicación del inductor BTH, y se comparó con el transcriptoma de la resistente. Los resultados obtenidos revelan que el tratamiento con BTH en hojas de Moneymaker ejerce notables cambios transcripcionales en la raíz; entre otros, la activación de factores de transcripción Myb (THM16 y THM 27) y del gen ACC oxidasa. Las respuestas inducidas por el BTH parecen ser de corta duración ya que no hubo transcritos diferenciales comunes a las dos fases temporales de la infección comparadas (2 y 12 dpi). El transcriptoma de Moneymaker tratada con BTH resultó ser muy diferente al de la variedad resistente Motelle, ambas sin infectar, destacando la mayor expresión en el primero del gen LeEXP2, una expansina relacionada con defensa frente a nematodos. Las respuestas inducidas por los nematodos en Moneymaker-BTH también fueron muy distintas a las observadas previamente en la interacción incompatible mediada por MiG1, pues sólo se detectaron 2 genes sobreexpresados comunes a ambos eventos. Finalmente, se abordó el estudio de la expresión diferencial de genes que codifican PRXs y su relación con la resistencia en la interacción tomate/M. javanica. Para ello, se realizó en primer lugar el estudio del análisis del transcriptoma de tomate de la interacción compatible, obtenido en un estudio previo a partir de tejido radical infectado en distintos tiempos de infección. Se han identificado 16 unigenes de PRXs con expresión diferencial de los cuales 15 se relacionan por primera vez con la respuesta a la infección de nematodos. La mayoría de los genes de PRXs identificados, 11, aparecen fuertemente reprimidos en el sitio de alimentación, en las células gigantes (CG). Dada la implicación directa de las PRXs en la activación del mecanismo de producción de ROS, la supresión de la expresión génica local de genes de PRXs en el sitio de establecimiento y alimentación pone de manifiesto la capacidad del nematodo para modular y superar la respuesta de defensa de la planta de tomate en la interacción compatible. Posteriormente, de estos genes identificados se han elegido 4: SGN-U143455, SGN-U143841 y SGN-U144042 reprimidos en el sitio de infección y SGN-U144671 inducido, cuyos cambios de expresión se han determinado mediante análisis por qRT-PCR y de hibridación in situ en dos tiempos de infección (2 dpi y 4 dpi) y en distintos tejidos radicales de tomate resistente y susceptible. Los patrones de expresión obtenidos demuestran que en la interacción incompatible la transcripción global de los 4 genes estudiados se dispara en la etapa más temprana en el sitio de infección, detectándose la localización in situ de transcritos en el citoplasma de las células corticales de la zona meristemática afectadas por el nematodo. A 4 dpi se observó que los niveles de expresión en el sitio de infección cambian de tendencia y los genes SGN-U144671 y SGN-U144042 se reprimen significativamente. Los diferentes perfiles de expresión de los genes PRXs en los dos tiempos de infección sugieren que su inducción en las primeras 48 horas es crucial para la respuesta de defensa relacionada con la resistencia frente a la invasión del nematodo. Por último, al analizar el tejido radical sistémico, se detectó una inducción significativa de la expresión en la fase más tardía de la infección del gen SGN-U144042 en el genotipo susceptible y del SGN-U143841 en ambos genotipos. En este estudio se describe por primera vez la inducción de la expresión sistémica de genes de PRXs en tomate durante la interacción compatible e incompatible con M. javanica lo que sugiere su posible implicación funcional en la respuesta de defensa SAR activada por la infección previa del nematodo. ABSTRACT Plants defend themselves from pathogens by constitutive and/or induced defenses. A common type of induced defense involves plant resistance genes (R), which are normally activated in response to attack by specific pathogen species. Typically, a specific plant R protein recognizes a specific pathogen avirulence (avr) compound. This initiates a complex biochemical cascade inside the plant that results in synthesis of antipathogen compounds. This response can involve chemical signaling, transcription, translation, enzymes and metabolism, and numerous plant hormones such as salicylic acid (SA), jasmonates (JA) and ethylene (ET). Induced plant defense can also activate Class III peroxidases (PRXs), which produce reactive oxygen species (ROS), regulate extracellular H2O2, and play additional roles in plant defense. R-gene activation and the resulting induced defense often remain localized in the specific tissues invaded by the plant pathogen. In other cases, the plant responds by signaling the entire plant to produce defense compounds (systemic induction). Plant defense can also be induced by the exogenous application of natural or synthetic elicitors, such as benzol-(1,2,3)-thiadiazole-7-carbothionic acid. There is much current scientific interest in R-genes and elicitors, because they might be manipulated to increase agricultural yield. Scientists also are interested in systemic induction, because this allows the entire plant to be defended. In this context, one of the aims of this investigation was the transcriptoma analysis of the root systems of two varieties of tomato, the resistant variety (Motelle) that carrier MiG1 and the susceptible (Moneymaker) without MiG1, before and after infection with M. javanica. The overexpression was more pronounced in the transcriptoma of the resistant variety compared with susceptible, before infection, including the MiG1 gene, PrG1 (or P4) genes, LEJA1 and ER24, indicating that hormone SA, JA and ET are active in the resistant variety. Moreover, GA hormone presents an opposite behavior. M. javanica infection causes significant transcriptional changes in both compatible (Moneymaker-M. javanica) and incompatible (Motelle-M. javanica) interaction. In the incompatible transcriptome root system, was notably reduced the expression of the MiG1 gene, and a continuity in the expression of the hormonal pathways of SA and JA. In other hand, transcriptional profile changes during compatible interaction were associated with nematode infection. The large differences between the two times point infection considered (2 dpi and 12 dpi) indicates an overexpression of cell wall related genes in the first phase, and conversely an overexpression of RNA genes in the late phase. Transcriptoma analysis of incompatible interaction, although there were differences between the two phases, should be highlighted the common differential gene expression: loxA and mcpi (overexpressed) and loxD gene (suppressed), as they are involved in defenses in other plant-pathogen interactions. The VIGS tool has provided evidence that TGA 1a is involved in MiG1 mediated resistance to M. javanica. Likewise, the systemic application of BTH was assessed and compared with susceptible and resistant variety. Root system transcriptoma of BTH treatment on leaves showed the activation of Myb transcription factors (THM16 and THM27), the ACC oxidase gene. and the LeEXP2 gene, encoding for an expansin enzyme, related with defense against nematodes. The activation appears to be reduced by subsequent infection and establishment of nematodes. To assist in elucidate the role of tomato PRXs in plant defence against M. javanica, the transcriptome obtained previously from isolated giant cells (GC) and galls at 3 and 7 dpi from the compatible interaction was analysed. A total of 18 different probes corresponding to 16 PRX encoding genes were differentially expressed in infection site compared to the control uninfected root tissues. Most part of them (11) was down-regulated. These results yielded a first insight on 15 of the PRX genes responding to tomato–Meloidogyne interaction and confirm that repression of PRX genes might be crucial for feeding site formation at the initial stages of infection. To study the involvement of PRX genes in resistance response, four genes have been selected: SGN-U143455, SGN-U143841 and SGN-U144042 consistently down-regulated and SGN-U144671 consistently up-regulated at infection site in compatible interaction. The expression changes were determined by qRT-PCR and in situ location at 2 dpi and 4 dpi, and in different root tissues of resistant and susceptible plants. Early upon infection (2 dpi), the transcripts levels of the four genes were strongly increased in infected tissue of resistant genotype. In situ hybridization showed transcript accumulation of them in meristem cortical cells, where the nematode made injury. The results obtained provide strong evidence that early induction of PRX genes is important for defence response of the resistance against nematode invasion. Moreover, the induction patterns of SGN-U144042 gene observed at 4 dpi in distal noninfected root tissue into the susceptible genotype and of SGN-U143841 gene in both genotypes suggest a potential involvement of PRX in the systemic defence response.

Oxide Semiconductors For Organic Opto-electronic Devices

Development of transparent oxide semiconductors (TOS) from Earth-abundant materials is of great interest for cost-effective thin film device applications, such as solar cells, light emitting diodes (LEDs), touch-sensitive displays, electronic paper, and transparent thin film transistors. The need of inexpensive or high performance electrode might be even greater for organic photovoltaic (OPV), with the goal to harvest renewable energy with inexpensive, lightweight, and cost competitive materials. The natural abundance of zinc and the wide bandgap ($sim$3.3 eV) of its oxide make it an ideal candidate. In this dissertation, I have introduced various concepts on the modulations of various surface, interface and bulk opto-electronic properties of ZnO based semiconductor for charge transport, charge selectivity and optimal device performance. I have categorized transparent semiconductors into two sub groups depending upon their role in a device. Electrodes, usually 200 to 500 nm thick, optimized for good transparency and transporting the charges to the external circuit. Here, the electrical conductivity in parallel direction to thin film, i.e bulk conductivity is important. And contacts, usually 5 to 50 nm thick, are optimized in case of solar cells for providing charge selectivity and asymmetry to manipulate the built in field inside the device for charge separation and collection. Whereas in Organic LEDs (OLEDs), contacts provide optimum energy level alignment at organic oxide interface for improved charge injections. For an optimal solar cell performance, transparent electrodes are designed with maximum transparency in the region of interest to maximize the light to pass through to the absorber layer for photo-generation, plus they are designed for minimum sheet resistance for efficient charge collection and transport. As such there is need for material with high conductivity and transparency. Doping ZnO with some common elements such as B, Al, Ga, In, Ge, Si, and F result in n-type doping with increase in carriers resulting in high conductivity electrode, with better or comparable opto-electronic properties compared to current industry-standard indium tin oxide (ITO). Furthermore, improvement in mobility due to improvement on crystallographic structure also provide alternative path for high conductivity ZnO TCOs. Implementing these two aspects, various studies were done on gallium doped zinc oxide (GZO) transparent electrode, a very promising indium free electrode. The dynamics of the superimposed RF and DC power sputtering was utilized to improve the microstructure during the thin films growth, resulting in GZO electrode with conductivity greater than 4000 S/cm and transparency greater than 90 %. Similarly, various studies on research and development of Indium Zinc Tin Oxide and Indium Zinc Oxide thin films which can be applied to flexible substrates for next generation solar cells application is presented. In these new TCO systems, understanding the role of crystallographic structure ranging from poly-crystalline to amorphous phase and the influence on the charge transport and optical transparency as well as important surface passivation and surface charge transport properties. Implementation of these electrode based on ZnO on opto-electronics devices such as OLED and OPV is complicated due to chemical interaction over time with the organic layer or with ambient. The problem of inefficient charge collection/injection due to poor understanding of interface and/or bulk property of oxide electrode exists at several oxide-organic interfaces. The surface conductivity, the work function, the formation of dipoles and the band-bending at the interfacial sites can positively or negatively impact the device performance. Detailed characterization of the surface composition both before and after various chemicals treatment of various oxide electrode can therefore provide insight into optimization of device performance. Some of the work related to controlling the interfacial chemistry associated with charge transport of transparent electrodes are discussed. Thus, the role of various pre-treatment on poly-crystalline GZO electrode and amorphous indium zinc oxide (IZO) electrode is compared and contrasted. From the study, we have found that removal of defects and self passivating defects caused by accumulation of hydroxides in the surface of both poly-crystalline GZO and amorphous IZO, are critical for improving the surface conductivity and charge transport. Further insight on how these insulating and self-passivating defects cause charge accumulation and recombination in an device is discussed. With recent rapid development of bulk-heterojunction organic photovoltaics active materials, devices employing ZnO and ZnO based electrode provide air stable and cost-competitive alternatives to traditional inorganic photovoltaics. The organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs) have already been commercialized, thus to follow in the footsteps of this technology, OPV devices need further improvement in power conversion efficiency and stable materials resulting in long device lifetimes. Use of low work function metals such as Ca/Al in standard geometry do provide good electrode for electron collection, but serious problems using low work-function metal electrodes originates from the formation of non-conductive metal oxide due to oxidation resulting in rapid device failure. Hence, using low work-function, air stable, conductive metal oxides such as ZnO as electrons collecting electrode and high work-function, air stable metals such as silver for harvesting holes, has been on the rise. Devices with degenerately doped ZnO functioning as transparent conductive electrode, or as charge selective layer in a polymer/fullerene based heterojunction, present useful device structures for investigating the functional mechanisms within OPV devices and a possible pathway towards improved air-stable high efficiency devices. Furthermore, analysis of the physical properties of the ZnO layers with varying thickness, crystallographic structure, surface chemistry and grain size deposited via various techniques such as atomic layer deposition, sputtering and solution-processed ZnO with their respective OPV device performance is discussed. We find similarity and differences in electrode property for good charge injection in OLEDs and good charge collection in OPV devices very insightful in understanding physics behind device failures and successes. In general, self-passivating surface of amorphous TCOs IZO, ZTO and IZTO forms insulating layer that hinders the charge collection. Similarly, we find modulation of the carrier concentration and the mobility in electron transport layer, namely zinc oxide thin films, very important for optimizing device performance.

Bioactive compounds and physical and chemical characteristics of mini tomatoes: influence of postharvest treatments

Tomatoes are among the most cultivated and used vegetables in the world. They are very succeptible to post harvest losses due to high perishability, therefore the use of postharvest treatments may contribute to conservation of this fruit, however the treatments might affect significantly physico-chemical, sensory and nutritional characteristics of tomatoes. Given the perishability of tomato and the economic importance of small tomato fruits, the purpose of the present study was to determine the effect of gamma radiation, carnauba coating and 1-MCP treatments on tomato fruit quality during storage. The study may be divided into two parts. In the first, mini tomatoes cv. Sweet Grape were harvested at breaker stage, divided into 4 grous and treated with gamma radiation (0.6 kGy), carnauba coating (1 L 1000 kg-1) and 1-MCP (500 nL L-1) and then stored at 25±2°C for 30 days with a control group of tomatoes. In the seconnd part, tomatoes harvested at light-red stage were submitted to the same treatments and storage period. Every 6 days tomatoes were evaluated for color modifications, fruit firmness, souble and total pectin (only for light-red tomatoes), mass loss, titratable acidity (TA), soluble solids (SS), SS/TA ratio, carotenoids profile, formation of lycopene isomers, total phenolic compounds, ascorbic acid and antioxidant capacity. For tomatoes harvested at breaker stage and submitted to the treatments the results showed mass loss was delaying mainly by carnauba wax, and to a lesser extend by 1-MCP. Fruit firmness were better retained for 1-MCP treated fruits and carnauba treatment showed a transient effect in preserving fruit firmness. SS/TA of tomatoes treated with gamma radiation and carnauba presented no differences from control values, and were lower with the application of 1-MCP. Color was negatively affected by 1-MCP and earlier changed (6th day) when gamma radiation was applied. In relation to bioactive compounds of tomatoes harvest at breaker stage, results indicated gamma radiation and 1-MCP decreased the final content of lycopene and produced more (Z)-isomers of lycopene. Gamma radiation also induced a decreased in ?-carotene and an increased in phenolic compounds by the end of storage period. 1-MCP treatment promoted a slow down increase in ascorbic acid content during storage. Antioxidant capacity of the hydrophilic fraction was not dramatically affected by treatments and the lipophilic fraction was lower, especially for 1-MCP fruits. In addition, contents of ?-carotene, lycopene, (Z)-isomers of lycopene, ascorbic acid and antioxidant capacity increased during the period of storage while contents of lutein and phenolic compounds tended to decrease. Regarding tomatoes harvest at light-red stage, the most effective treatments for delaying fruit firmness and mass loss was carnauba and 1-MCP, while gamma radiation was the treatment with higher mass loss and the less fruit firmness, which could be associated with the higher solubilization of pectins promoted by radiation treatment. Color (L* and Hue) was mainly affected by 1-MCP treatment which delayed color development, however, by the end of storage, the values were not different from the other treatments. SS/TA ratio was lower for fruits treated with 1-MCP and TA was not so dramatically affected by treatments. Furthermore, mini tomatoes harvested at light-red stage, demonstrated irradiation induced changes in the final content of lycopene, increasing it, and formed less (13Z)-lycopene, while 1-MCP and carnauba coating slow down the increase in lycopene and slown down the decrease of ascorbic acid and phenolic compounds. Antioxidant capacity of lipophilic fraction was not affected by treatments and the hydrophilic fraction was lower for irradiated fruits only on day 0 as well as phenolic compounds. In the other days, no differences among treatments were observed for hydrophilic antioxidant capacity. Considering the results, the best combination of SS and TA and fruit preservation for mini tomatoes harvest at breaker stage was promoted by carnauba coating, which seems to be the treatment that causes fewer changes in bioactive compounds of breaker tomatoes. However, when mini tomatoes were harvested at light-red stage, SS/TA ratio and color were better and, to preserve the quality of these fruits, besides carnauba coating, 1-MCP also could be indicated

Effects of Natural Organic Matter on the Dissolution Kinetics and Bioavailability of Metal Oxide Nanoparticles

The rapid development of nanotechnology and wider applications of engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) in the last few decades have generated concerns regarding their environmental and health risks. After release into the environment, ENMs undergo aggregation, transformation, and, for metal-based nanomaterials, dissolution processes, which together determine their fate, bioavailability and toxicity to living organisms in the ecosystems. The rates of these processes are dependent on nanomaterial characteristics as well as complex environmental factors, including natural organic matter (NOM). As a ubiquitous component of aquatic systems, NOM plays a key role in the aggregation, dissolution and transformation of metal-based nanomaterials and colloids in aquatic environments.

The goal of this dissertation work is to investigate how NOM fractions with different chemical and molecular properties affect the dissolution kinetics of metal oxide ENMs, such as zinc oxide (ZnO) and copper oxide (CuO) nanoparticles (NPs), and consequently their bioavailability to aquatic vertebrate, with Gulf killifish (Fundulus grandis) embryos as model organisms.

ZnO NPs are known to dissolve at relatively fast rates, and the rate of dissolution is influenced by water chemistry, including the presence of Zn-chelating ligands. A challenge, however, remains in quantifying the dissolution of ZnO NPs, particularly for time scales that are short enough to determine rates. This dissertation assessed the application of anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV) with a hanging mercury drop electrode to directly measure the concentration of dissolved Zn in ZnO NP suspensions, without separation of the ZnO NPs from the aqueous phase. Dissolved zinc concentration measured by ASV ([Zn]ASV) was compared with that measured by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) after ultracentrifugation ([Zn]ICP-MS), for four types of ZnO NPs with different coatings and primary particle diameters. For small ZnO NPs (4-5 nm), [Zn]ASV was 20% higher than [Zn]ICP-MS, suggesting that these small NPs contributed to the voltammetric measurement. For larger ZnO NPs (approximately 20 nm), [Zn]ASV was (79±19)% of [Zn]ICP-MS, despite the high concentrations of ZnO NPs in suspension, suggesting that ASV can be used to accurately measure the dissolution kinetics of ZnO NPs of this primary particle size.

Using the ASV technique to directly measure dissolved zinc concentration, we examined the effects of 16 different NOM isolates on the dissolution kinetics of ZnO NPs in buffered potassium chloride solution. The observed dissolution rate constants (kobs) and dissolved zinc concentrations at equilibrium increased linearly with NOM concentration (from 0 to 40 mg-C L-1) for Suwannee River humic acid (SRHA), Suwannee River fulvic acid and Pony Lake fulvic acid. When dissolution rates were compared for the 16 NOM isolates, kobs was positively correlated with certain properties of NOM, including specific ultraviolet absorbance (SUVA), aromatic and carbonyl carbon contents, and molecular weight. Dissolution rate constants were negatively correlated to hydrogen/carbon ratio and aliphatic carbon content. The observed correlations indicate that aromatic carbon content is a key factor in determining the rate of NOM-promoted dissolution of ZnO NPs. NOM isolates with higher SUVA were also more effective at enhancing the colloidal stability of the NPs; however, the NOM-promoted dissolution was likely due to enhanced interactions between surface metal ions and NOM rather than smaller aggregate size.

Based on the above results, we designed experiments to quantitatively link the dissolution kinetics and bioavailability of CuO NPs to Gulf killifish embryos under the influence of NOM. The CuO NPs dissolved to varying degrees and at different rates in diluted 5‰ artificial seawater buffered to different pH (6.3-7.5), with or without selected NOM isolates at various concentrations (0.1-10 mg-C L-1). NOM isolates with higher SUVA and aromatic carbon content (such as SRHA) were more effective at promoting the dissolution of CuO NPs, as with ZnO NPs, especially at higher NOM concentrations. On the other hand, the presence of NOM decreased the bioavailability of dissolved Cu ions, with the uptake rate constant negatively correlated to dissolved organic carbon concentration ([DOC]) multiplied by SUVA, a combined parameter indicative of aromatic carbon concentration in the media. When the embryos were exposed to CuO NP suspension, changes in their Cu content were due to the uptake of both dissolved Cu ions and nanoparticulate CuO. The uptake rate constant of nanoparticulate CuO was also negatively correlated to [DOC]×SUVA, in a fashion roughly proportional to changes in dissolved Cu uptake rate constant. Thus, the ratio of uptake rate constants from dissolved Cu and nanoparticulate CuO (ranging from 12 to 22, on average 17±4) were insensitive to NOM type or concentration. Instead, the relative contributions of these two Cu forms were largely determined by the percentage of CuO NP that was dissolved.

Overall, this dissertation elucidated the important role that dissolved NOM plays in affecting the environmental fate and bioavailability of soluble metal-based nanomaterials. This dissertation work identified aromatic carbon content and its indicator SUVA as key NOM properties that influence the dissolution, aggregation and biouptake kinetics of metal oxide NPs and highlighted dissolution rate as a useful functional assay for assessing the relative contributions of dissolved and nanoparticulate forms to metal bioavailability. Findings of this dissertation work will be helpful for predicting the environmental risks of engineered nanomaterials.

Geochemical composition of sulfide and oxide minerals from ODP Sites 193-1188 and 193-1189, PACMANUS field

Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) Leg 193 recovered core from the active PACMANUS hydrothermal field (eastern Manus Basin, Papua New Guinea) that provided an excellent opportunity to study mineralization related to a seafloor hydrothermal system hosted by felsic volcanic rocks. The purpose of this work is to provide a data set of mineral chemistry of the sulfide-oxide mineralization and associated gold occurrence in samples drilled at Sites 1188 and 1189. PACMANUS consists of five active vent sites, namely Rogers Ruins, Roman Ruins, Satanic Mills, Tsukushi, and Snowcap. In this work two sites were studied: Snowcap and Roman Ruins. Snowcap is situated in a water depth of 1670 meters below sea level [mbsl], covers a knoll of dacite-rhyodacite lava, and is characterized by low-temperature diffuse venting. Roman Ruin lies in a water depth of 1693-1710 mbsl, is 150 m across, and contains numerous large, active and inactive, columnar chimneys. Sulfide mineralogy at the Roman Ruins site is dominated by pyrite with lesser amounts of chalcopyrite, sphalerite, pyrrhotite, marcasite, and galena. Sulfide minerals are relatively rare at Snow Cap. These are dominated by pyrite with minor chalcopyrite and sphalerite and traces of pyrrhotite. Native gold has been found in a single sample from Hole 1189B (Roman Ruins). Oxide minerals are represented by Ti magnetite, magnetite, ilmenite, hercynite (Fe spinel), and less abundant Al-Mg rich chromite (average = 10.6 wt% Al2O3 and 5.8 wt% MgO), Fe-Ti oxides, and a single occurrence of pyrophanite (Mn Ti O3). Oxide mineralization is more developed at Snowcap, whereas sulfide minerals are more extensive and show better development at Roman Ruins. The mineralogy was obtained mainly by a detailed optical microscopy study. Oxide mineral identifications were confirmed by X-ray diffraction, and mineral chemistry was determined by electron probe microanalyses.

Application of chitosan loaded with metal oxide nano particles to remove lead present from sea water

Chitosan is a natural polymer obtained by deacetylation of chitin. After cellulose chitin is the second most abundant polysaccharide in nature. It is biologically safe, non-toxic, biocompatible and biodegradable polysaccharide. Chitosan loaded with zinc oxide nanoparticles have gained more attention bio sorbent because of their better stability, low toxicity, simple and mild preparation method and high sorption capacity. Chitosan loaded with zinc oxide nanoparticles have been prepared of chitosan. The physicochemical properties of nanoparticles were characterized by Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR), Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) Analysis. Its sorption capacity for lead and cadmium ions studied. Factors such as initial concentration of lead ions, cadmium ions sorbent amount, contact time, pH and temperature were investigated. It is found that chitosan loaded with zinc oxide nanoparticles could sorb lead and cadmium ions effectively, this sorption rate was affected significantly by initial concentration of lead and cadmium ions, sorbent amount, contact time, pH of solution. The maximum of percentage of lead sorption was 98 % with initial concentration 3 mg/l and sorbent amount 0.05 g, pH 11 in 45 min and cadmiumwas90 %with initial concentration 3mg/l and sorbent amount 0.05 g, pH 11 in45 min. Consequently chitosan loaded with zinc oxide nanoparticles demonstrated greater fixation ability for lead ions than cadmium ions.

Caracterização funcional de dois cDNAs homólogos à ciclofilina e à proteína reprimida por auxina (ARP) identificados em bibliotecas subtrativas a para floração em tomateiro

Flowering is a fundamental process in the life cycle for plant. This process is marked by vegetative to reproductive apical meristem conversion, due to interactions between several factors, both internal and external to plant. Therefore, eight subtractive libraries were constructed using apical meristem induced or not induced for two contrasting species: Solanum lycopersicum cv. Micro-Tom and Solanum pimpinellifolium. Several cDNAs were identified and among these, were selected two cDNAs: one homologous cDNA to cyclophilin (LeCYP1) and the other to Auxin repressed protein (ARP). It has observed that LeCYP1 and ARP genes are important in the developmental process to plants. In silico analysis, were used several databases with the exclusion criterion E-value <1.0x10-15. As a result, conservation was observed for proteins analyzed by means of multiple alignments and the presence of functional domains. Then, overexpression cassettes were constructed for the ARP cDNA in sense and antisense orientations. For this step, it was used the CaMV35S promoter. The cDNA orientation (sense or antisense) in relation to the promoter was determined by restriction enzymes and sequencing. Then, this cassette was transferred to binary vector pZP211 and these cassettes were transferred into Agrobacterium tumefaciens LBA4404. S. lycopersicum cv. Micro-Tom (MT) and MT-Rg1 plants were transformed. In addition, seedlings were subjected to hormone treatments using a synthetic auxin (- naphthalene acetic acid) and cyclosporin A (cyclophilin inhibitor) treatments and it was found that the hormone treatment there were changes in development of lateral roots pattern, probably related to decreases in auxin signaling caused by reduction of LeCYP1 in MT-dgt plants while cyclosporin A treatments, there was a slight delay in flowering in cv. MT plants. Furthermore, assay with real-time PCR (RT-qPCR) were done for expression level analysis from LeCYP1 and ARP in order to functionally characterize these sequences in tomato plants.

Seleção de acessos selvagens de solanum stramonifolium resistentes a patógenos de solo para uso como porta-enxerto em cultivos de tomate.

2016

Formation of one-dimensional capped ZnO nanoparticle assemblies at the air/water interface

The self-assembling behavior and microscopic structure of zinc oxide nanoparticle Langmuir-Blodgett monolayer films were investigated for the case of zinc oxide nanoparticles coated with a hydrophobic layer of dodecanethiol. Evolution of nanoparticle film structure as a function of surface pressure (π) at the air-water interface was monitored in situ using Brewster’s angle microscopy, where it was determined that π=16 mN/m produced near-defect-free monolayer films. Transmission electron micrographs of drop-cast and Langmuir-Schaefer deposited films of the dodecanethiol-coated zinc oxide nanoparticles revealed that the nanoparticle preparation method yielded a microscopic structure that consisted of one-dimensional rodlike assemblies of nanoparticles with typical dimensions of 25 x 400 nm, encased in the organic dodecanethiol layer. These nanoparticle-containing rodlike micelles were aligned into ordered arrangements of parallel rods using the Langmuir-Blodgett technique.

ZnO nanostructures grown on epitaxial GaN

Presented is the growth of zinc oxide nanorod/nanowire arrays on gallium nitride epitaxial layers. A hierarchical zinc oxide morphology comprising of different scale zinc oxide nanostructures was observed. The first tier of the surface comprised of typical zinc oxide nanorods, with most bridging to adjacent nanorods. While the second tier comprised of smaller zinc oxide nanowires approximately 30 nm in width often growing atop the aforementioned bridges. Samples were analysed via scanning electron microscopy, as well as, cross-sectional and high resolution transmission electron microscopy to elucidate the detailed growth and structural elements of the heterostructure. © 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Transition from n- to p-type of spray pyrolysis deposited Cu doped ZnO thin films for NO2 sensing

The structural, optical, and gas-sensing properties of spray pyrolysis deposited Cu doped ZnO thin films were investigated. Gas response of the undoped and doped films to N02 (oxidizing) gas shows an increase and decrease in resistance, respectively, indicating p-type conduction in doped samples. The UV-Vis spectra of the films show decrease in the bandgap with increasing Cu concentration in ZnO. The observed p-type conductivity is attributed to the holes generated by incorporated Cu atoms on Zn sites in ZnO thin films. The X-ray diffraction spectra showed that samples are polycrystalline with the hexagonal wurtzite structure and increasing the concentration of Cu caused a decrease in the intensity of the dominant (002) peak. The surface morphology of films was studied by scanning electron microscopy and the presence of Cu was also confirmed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Seebeck effect measurements were utilized to confirm the p-type conduction of Cu doped ZnO thin films. Copyright © 2009 American Scientific Publishers All rights reserved.

Facet-controlled Self-assembly of ZnO Nanocrystals by Non-Hydrolytic Aminolysis and their Photodegradation Activities

We report a method for controlling the exposed facets and hence the dimensionality and shape of ZnO nanocrystals using a non-hydrolytic aminolysis synthesis route. The effects of changes to reaction conditions on ZnO formation were investigated and possible self-assembly mechanisms proposed. The crystal facet growth and hence morphologies of the ZnO nanocrystals were controlled by varying reaction temperature and the reactant ratio. Four distinct ZnO nanocrystal types were produced (nanocones, nanobullets, nanorods and nanoplates). The relative photocatalytic activities of the exposed facets of these ZnO nanostructures were also examined, which showed the activities obviously depended on the reactivity of exposed crystal facets in the order: {1011}>>{0001}, {1010}.

Non-aqueous synthesis of hexagonal ZnO nanopyramids : gas sensing properties

Zinc oxide (ZnO) nanopyramids were synthesized by a one-pot route in a non-aqueous and surfactantfree environment. The synthesized metal oxide was characterized using SEM, XRD, and TEM to investigate the surface morphology and crystallographic phase of the nanostructures. It was observed that the ZnO nanopyramids were of uniform size and symmetrical, with a hexagonal base and height of ∼100 nm. Gas sensing characterization of the ZnO nanopyramids when deposited as thin-film onto conductometric transducers were performed towards NOx and C2H5OH vapor of different concentrations over a temperature range of 22–350 ◦C. It was observed that the sensors responded towards NO2 (10 ppm) and C2H5OH(250 ppm) analytes best at temperatures of 200 and 260 ◦C with a sensor response of 14.5 and 5.72, respectively. The sensors showed satisfactory sensitivity, repeatability as well as fast response and recovery towards both the oxidizing and the reducing analyte. The good performance was attributed to the low amount of organic impurities, large surface-to-volume ratio and high crystallinity of the solvothermally synthesized ZnO nanopyramids.