POST-PROCESSING TECHNIQUES SUITABILITY FOR MESOLEVEL FREE BOUNDARY FLOWS

Reliable flow simulation software is inevitable to determine an optimal injection strategy in Liquid Composite Molding processes. Several methodologies can be implemented into standard software in order to reduce CPU time. Post-processing techniques might be one of them. Post-processing a finite element solution is a well-known procedure, which consists in a recalculation of the originally obtained quantities such that the rate of convergence increases without the need for expensive remeshing techniques. Post-processing is especially effective in problems where better accuracy is required for derivatives of nodal variables in regions where Dirichlet essential boundary condition is imposed strongly. In previous works influence of smoothness of non-homogeneous Dirichlet condition, imposed on smooth front was examined. However, usually quite a non-smooth boundary is obtained at each time step of the infiltration process due to discretization. Then direct application of post-processing techniques does not improve final results as expected. The new contribution of this paper lies in improvement of the standard methodology. Improved results clearly show that the recalculated flow front is closer to the ”exact” one, is smoother that the previous one and it improves local disturbances of the “exact” solution.

Post-processing Techniques in Free Boundary Flows during Liquid Composite Moulding Processes

Post-processing a finite element solution is a well-known technique, which consists in a recalculation of the originally obtained quantities such that the rate of convergence increases without the need for expensive remeshing techniques. Postprocessing is especially effective in problems where better accuracy is required for derivatives of nodal variables in regions where Dirichlet essential boundary condition is imposed strongly. Consequently such an approach can be exceptionally good in modelling of resin infiltration under quasi steady-state assumption by remeshing techniques and with explicit time integration, because only the free-front normal velocities are necessary to advance the resin front to the next position. The new contribution is the post-processing analysis and implementation of the freeboundary velocities of mesolevel infiltration analysis. Such implementation ensures better accuracy on even coarser meshes, which in consequence reduces the computational time also by the possibility of employing larger time steps.

Sub-notificação de reacções adversas medicamentosas : um problema com solução? : contribuição para o conhecimento da sub-notificação de RAMs em Portugal e implementação de medidas minimizadoras do impacte

RESUMO - Introdução: As Reacções Adversas Medicamentosas (RAMs) constituem um grave problema de Saúde Pública em termos da mortalidade e morbilidade provocadas, tendo também um impacto económico considerável nos Sistemas de Saúde. Os Sistemas de Notificacão Espontânea de RAMs são considerados como o método de vigilância de medicamentos mais eficaz, sendo a sub-notificação de RAMs uma das suas maiores limitações. Em termos globais, foi estimado que apenas 6% de todas as reacções adversas são notificadas. Portugal apresenta uma taxa de notificação de RAMs relativamente baixa quando comparada com os países mais notificadores da Europa. São objectivos deste estudo: 1) caracterizar as atitudes e os comportamentos dos médicos, dos farmacêuticos e dos enfermeiros em Portugal Continental relativamente à notificação de RAMs; e 2) caracterizar a efectividade de intervenções educacionais destinadas a reduzir a sub-notificação de RAMs. Métodos: Numa primeira fase será efectuado um estudo de caso-controlo em médicos, farmacêuticos e enfermeiros de Portugal Continental, a exercer actividade no Servico Nacional de Saúde (SNS), de modo a caracterizar as suas atitudes e comportamentos relativamente à notificação de RAMs. Como casos serão considerados os Profissionais de Saúde que notificaram pelo menos uma RAM num determinado período e os controlos os Profissionais de Saúde que não notificaram qualquer RAM nesse mesmo período, sendo estes útimos seleccionados aleatoriamente. O estudo será conduzido através de um questionário de auto-resposta, em que as questões relativas às atitudes e comportamentos são baseadas nos “sete pecados mortais” de Inman. Será utilizada uma Escala Visual Analógica para registar as respostas, podendo estas ir de zero (totalmente em desacordo) até 10 (totalmente de acordo). Será utilizada uma análise de regressão logística para determinar o odds ratio ajustado (ORadj) da notificação de RAMs para uma mudança de exposição correspondente ao range interquartil para cada atitude. Numa segunda fase, será efectuado ensaio aleatorizado controlado de cluster, para caracterizar a efectividade das intervenções educacionais realizadas sobre as causas identificadas na primeira parte do trabalho, com o intuito de reduzir a sub-notificação de RAMs. Com base em informacão de 2007 foram identificados 43 clusters dispersos pelas várias Regiões de Saúde. As intervenções educacionais são compostas por uma apresentação com uma hora de duração complementada por um folheto recordatório. Serão ainda realizados dois sub-estudos, em que o V1.0, Final 28Set09 viii Sub-notificação de RAMs em Portugal – Um problema com solução ? primeiro tentará caracterizar o efeito de contaminação entre Profissionais de Saúde e o segundo pretende caracterizar a duração do efeito das intervenções educacionais. Resultados a atingir: Pretende-se, com a implementação deste projecto, aumentar o número de notificações de RAMs pelos médicos, farmacêuticos e enfermeiros em cerca de 110%, de modo a atingir-se uma taxa de notificação de aproximadamente 300 notificações por milhão de habitantes por ano (i.e., multiplicar por 2,1 o número notificações existentes). -------------------ABSTRACT - Introduction: The Adverse Drug Reactions (ADRs) are a serious Public Health problem in terms of mortality and morbidity caused, being also an economic burden for the health systems. The Spontaneous Adverse Event Reporting Systems are considered as the most effective drug surveillance methods, in which the ADR under-reporting represents one of its biggest limitations. It was estimated that only 6% of all adverse reactions are notified globally. When comparing with high ADR reporting rate countries Portugal shows a low ADR reporting rate. This study aims to: 1) characterize the physicians, pharmacists and nurses attitudes and behaviours related to ADR under-reporting; 2) characterize the educational interventions effectiveness to decrease the ADRs under-reporting. Methods: During a first phase a case-control study will be conducted in physicians, pharmacists and nurses in Continental Portugal working in the National Health System (NHS) in order to characterize their attitudes and behaviours related to ADR reporting. The Healthcare Professionals that have reported at least one ADR during a determined period will be considered as the cases and those that have not reported any ADR during the same period will be considered as the controls. The controls will be randomly selected. The study will be conducted through a self-administered questionnaire in which the questions related to the attitudes and behaviours are based in the Inmans’s “seven mortal sins”. A Visual Analogue Scale will be used to record the responses. The responses can range from 0 (totally disagree) to 10 (totally agree). Logistic regression will be used to determine the ADR reporting adjusted odds ratio (ORadj) for a change in the exposure corresponding to the interquartile range for each attitude. In the second phase of the study a cluster-randomized controlled trial will be conducted to characterize the educational interventions effectiveness focused on the first phase identified causes with the aim to decrease the ADRs under-reporting. Based in 2007’s information 43 clusters have been identified throughout the several Health Regions. The educational interventions are composed of one hour presentation complemented by an informational leaflet. Two sub-studies will be also conducted in which the first one will try to characterize the contamination effect between the Healthcare Professionals and the second to characterize the educational interventions effect duration. V1.0, Final 28Set09 x Sub-notificação de RAMs em Portugal – Um problema com solução ? Outcome: With the project implementation an increase of the ADR notifications performed by the physicians, pharmacists and nurses by 110% is aimed in order to obtain approximately 300 notifications per million habitants per year (i.e., multiply by 2,1 the existent notifications).

Evolução da ocupação e da perda de solo numa pequena sub-bacia da Bacia Hidrográfica do Rio Sado

Dissertação apresentada na Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia da Universidade Nova de Lisboa para a obtenção do grau de Mestre em Engenharia do Ambiente,Perfil Gestão de Sistemas Ambientais

Complementary filter design with three frequency bands: robot attitude estimation

This paper extents the by now classic sensor fusion complementary filter (CF) design, involving two sensors, to the case where three sensors that provide measurements in different bands are available. This paper shows that the use of classical CF techniques to tackle a generic three sensors fusion problem, based solely on their frequency domain characteristics, leads to a minimal realization, stable, sub-optimal solution, denoted as Complementary Filters3 (CF3). Then, a new approach for the estimation problem at hand is used, based on optimal linear Kalman filtering techniques. Moreover, the solution is shown to preserve the complementary property, i.e. the sum of the three transfer functions of the respective sensors add up to one, both in continuous and discrete time domains. This new class of filters are denoted as Complementary Kalman Filters3 (CKF3). The attitude estimation of a mobile robot is addressed, based on data from a rate gyroscope, a digital compass, and odometry. The experimental results obtained are reported.

Evaluation of the double diffusion, enzyme immunoassay and immunoblotting techniques, for the diagnosis of human hydatid disease in tropical areas

Hydatid disease in tropical areas poses a serious diagnostic problem due to the high frequence of cross-reactivity with other endemic helminthic infections. The enzyme-linked-immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and the double diffusion arc 5 showed respectively a sensitivity of 73% and 57% and a specificity of 84-95% and 100%. However, the specificity of ELISA was greatly increased by using ovine serum and phosphorylcholine in the diluent buffer. The hydatic antigen obtained from ovine cyst fluid showed three main protein bands of 64,58 and 30 KDa using SDS PAGE and immunoblotting. Sera from patients with onchocerciasis, cysticercosis, toxocariasis and Strongyloides infection cross-reacted with the 64 and 58 KDa bands by immunoblotting. However, none of the analyzed sera recognized the 30 KDa band, that seems to be specific in this assay. The immunoblotting showed a sensitivity of 80% and a specificity of 100% when used to recognize the 30 KDa band.

Unmixing hyperspectral data: independent and dependent component analysis

The development of high spatial resolution airborne and spaceborne sensors has improved the capability of ground-based data collection in the fields of agriculture, geography, geology, mineral identification, detection [2, 3], and classification [4–8]. The signal read by the sensor from a given spatial element of resolution and at a given spectral band is a mixing of components originated by the constituent substances, termed endmembers, located at that element of resolution. This chapter addresses hyperspectral unmixing, which is the decomposition of the pixel spectra into a collection of constituent spectra, or spectral signatures, and their corresponding fractional abundances indicating the proportion of each endmember present in the pixel [9, 10]. Depending on the mixing scales at each pixel, the observed mixture is either linear or nonlinear [11, 12]. The linear mixing model holds when the mixing scale is macroscopic [13]. The nonlinear model holds when the mixing scale is microscopic (i.e., intimate mixtures) [14, 15]. The linear model assumes negligible interaction among distinct endmembers [16, 17]. The nonlinear model assumes that incident solar radiation is scattered by the scene through multiple bounces involving several endmembers [18]. Under the linear mixing model and assuming that the number of endmembers and their spectral signatures are known, hyperspectral unmixing is a linear problem, which can be addressed, for example, under the maximum likelihood setup [19], the constrained least-squares approach [20], the spectral signature matching [21], the spectral angle mapper [22], and the subspace projection methods [20, 23, 24]. Orthogonal subspace projection [23] reduces the data dimensionality, suppresses undesired spectral signatures, and detects the presence of a spectral signature of interest. The basic concept is to project each pixel onto a subspace that is orthogonal to the undesired signatures. As shown in Settle [19], the orthogonal subspace projection technique is equivalent to the maximum likelihood estimator. This projection technique was extended by three unconstrained least-squares approaches [24] (signature space orthogonal projection, oblique subspace projection, target signature space orthogonal projection). Other works using maximum a posteriori probability (MAP) framework [25] and projection pursuit [26, 27] have also been applied to hyperspectral data. In most cases the number of endmembers and their signatures are not known. Independent component analysis (ICA) is an unsupervised source separation process that has been applied with success to blind source separation, to feature extraction, and to unsupervised recognition [28, 29]. ICA consists in finding a linear decomposition of observed data yielding statistically independent components. Given that hyperspectral data are, in given circumstances, linear mixtures, ICA comes to mind as a possible tool to unmix this class of data. In fact, the application of ICA to hyperspectral data has been proposed in reference 30, where endmember signatures are treated as sources and the mixing matrix is composed by the abundance fractions, and in references 9, 25, and 31–38, where sources are the abundance fractions of each endmember. In the first approach, we face two problems: (1) The number of samples are limited to the number of channels and (2) the process of pixel selection, playing the role of mixed sources, is not straightforward. In the second approach, ICA is based on the assumption of mutually independent sources, which is not the case of hyperspectral data, since the sum of the abundance fractions is constant, implying dependence among abundances. This dependence compromises ICA applicability to hyperspectral images. In addition, hyperspectral data are immersed in noise, which degrades the ICA performance. IFA [39] was introduced as a method for recovering independent hidden sources from their observed noisy mixtures. IFA implements two steps. First, source densities and noise covariance are estimated from the observed data by maximum likelihood. Second, sources are reconstructed by an optimal nonlinear estimator. Although IFA is a well-suited technique to unmix independent sources under noisy observations, the dependence among abundance fractions in hyperspectral imagery compromises, as in the ICA case, the IFA performance. Considering the linear mixing model, hyperspectral observations are in a simplex whose vertices correspond to the endmembers. Several approaches [40–43] have exploited this geometric feature of hyperspectral mixtures [42]. Minimum volume transform (MVT) algorithm [43] determines the simplex of minimum volume containing the data. The MVT-type approaches are complex from the computational point of view. Usually, these algorithms first find the convex hull defined by the observed data and then fit a minimum volume simplex to it. Aiming at a lower computational complexity, some algorithms such as the vertex component analysis (VCA) [44], the pixel purity index (PPI) [42], and the N-FINDR [45] still find the minimum volume simplex containing the data cloud, but they assume the presence in the data of at least one pure pixel of each endmember. This is a strong requisite that may not hold in some data sets. In any case, these algorithms find the set of most pure pixels in the data. Hyperspectral sensors collects spatial images over many narrow contiguous bands, yielding large amounts of data. For this reason, very often, the processing of hyperspectral data, included unmixing, is preceded by a dimensionality reduction step to reduce computational complexity and to improve the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). Principal component analysis (PCA) [46], maximum noise fraction (MNF) [47], and singular value decomposition (SVD) [48] are three well-known projection techniques widely used in remote sensing in general and in unmixing in particular. The newly introduced method [49] exploits the structure of hyperspectral mixtures, namely the fact that spectral vectors are nonnegative. The computational complexity associated with these techniques is an obstacle to real-time implementations. To overcome this problem, band selection [50] and non-statistical [51] algorithms have been introduced. This chapter addresses hyperspectral data source dependence and its impact on ICA and IFA performances. The study consider simulated and real data and is based on mutual information minimization. Hyperspectral observations are described by a generative model. This model takes into account the degradation mechanisms normally found in hyperspectral applications—namely, signature variability [52–54], abundance constraints, topography modulation, and system noise. The computation of mutual information is based on fitting mixtures of Gaussians (MOG) to data. The MOG parameters (number of components, means, covariances, and weights) are inferred using the minimum description length (MDL) based algorithm [55]. We study the behavior of the mutual information as a function of the unmixing matrix. The conclusion is that the unmixing matrix minimizing the mutual information might be very far from the true one. Nevertheless, some abundance fractions might be well separated, mainly in the presence of strong signature variability, a large number of endmembers, and high SNR. We end this chapter by sketching a new methodology to blindly unmix hyperspectral data, where abundance fractions are modeled as a mixture of Dirichlet sources. This model enforces positivity and constant sum sources (full additivity) constraints. The mixing matrix is inferred by an expectation-maximization (EM)-type algorithm. This approach is in the vein of references 39 and 56, replacing independent sources represented by MOG with mixture of Dirichlet sources. Compared with the geometric-based approaches, the advantage of this model is that there is no need to have pure pixels in the observations. The chapter is organized as follows. Section 6.2 presents a spectral radiance model and formulates the spectral unmixing as a linear problem accounting for abundance constraints, signature variability, topography modulation, and system noise. Section 6.3 presents a brief resume of ICA and IFA algorithms. Section 6.4 illustrates the performance of IFA and of some well-known ICA algorithms with experimental data. Section 6.5 studies the ICA and IFA limitations in unmixing hyperspectral data. Section 6.6 presents results of ICA based on real data. Section 6.7 describes the new blind unmixing scheme and some illustrative examples. Section 6.8 concludes with some remarks.

Hyperspectral unmixing algorithm via dependent component analysis

This paper introduces a new method to blindly unmix hyperspectral data, termed dependent component analysis (DECA). This method decomposes a hyperspectral images into a collection of reflectance (or radiance) spectra of the materials present in the scene (endmember signatures) and the corresponding abundance fractions at each pixel. DECA assumes that each pixel is a linear mixture of the endmembers signatures weighted by the correspondent abundance fractions. These abudances are modeled as mixtures of Dirichlet densities, thus enforcing the constraints on abundance fractions imposed by the acquisition process, namely non-negativity and constant sum. The mixing matrix is inferred by a generalized expectation-maximization (GEM) type algorithm. This method overcomes the limitations of unmixing methods based on Independent Component Analysis (ICA) and on geometrical based approaches. The effectiveness of the proposed method is illustrated using simulated data based on U.S.G.S. laboratory spectra and real hyperspectral data collected by the AVIRIS sensor over Cuprite, Nevada.

Modern techniques for constraint solving the CASPER experience

Dissertação apresentada para obtenção do Grau de Doutor em Engenharia Informática, pela Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia

Using data mining techniques to support breast cancer diagnosis

More than ever, there is an increase of the number of decision support methods and computer aided diagnostic systems applied to various areas of medicine. In breast cancer research, many works have been done in order to reduce false-positives when used as a double reading method. In this study, we aimed to present a set of data mining techniques that were applied to approach a decision support system in the area of breast cancer diagnosis. This method is geared to assist clinical practice in identifying mammographic findings such as microcalcifications, masses and even normal tissues, in order to avoid misdiagnosis. In this work a reliable database was used, with 410 images from about 115 patients, containing previous reviews performed by radiologists as microcalcifications, masses and also normal tissue findings. Throughout this work, two feature extraction techniques were used: the gray level co-occurrence matrix and the gray level run length matrix. For classification purposes, we considered various scenarios according to different distinct patterns of injuries and several classifiers in order to distinguish the best performance in each case described. The many classifiers used were Naïve Bayes, Support Vector Machines, k-nearest Neighbors and Decision Trees (J48 and Random Forests). The results in distinguishing mammographic findings revealed great percentages of PPV and very good accuracy values. Furthermore, it also presented other related results of classification of breast density and BI-RADS® scale. The best predictive method found for all tested groups was the Random Forest classifier, and the best performance has been achieved through the distinction of microcalcifications. The conclusions based on the several tested scenarios represent a new perspective in breast cancer diagnosis using data mining techniques.

Functional significance of adenosine in carotid body chemosensory activity in control and chronically hypoxic animals

ABSTRACT: Carotid bodies (CB) are peripheral chemoreceptor organs sensing changes in arterial blood O2, CO2 and pH levels. Hypoxia and acidosis or hypercapnia activates CB chemoreceptor cells, which respond by releasing neurotransmitters in order to increase the action potential frequency in their sensory nerve, the carotid sinus nerve (CSN). CSN activity is integrated in the brainstem to induce a fan of cardiorespiratory reflex responses, aimed at normalising the altered blood gases. Exogenously applied adenosine (Ado) increases CSN chemosensory activity inducing hyperventilation through activation of A2 receptors. The importance of the effects of adenosine in chemoreception was reinforced by data obtained in humans, in which the intravenous infusion of Ado causes hyperventilation and dyspnoea, an effect that has been attributed to the activation of CB because Ado does not cross blood-brain barrier and because the ventilatory effects are higher the closer to the CB it is injected. The present work was performed in order to establish the functional significance of adenosine in chemoreception at the carotid body in control and chronically hypoxic rats. To achieve this objective we investigated: 1) The release of adenosine from a rat carotid body in vitro preparation in response to moderate hypoxia and the specificity of this release. We also investigated the metabolic pathways of adenosine production and release in the organ in normoxia and hypoxia; 2) The modulation of adenosine/ATP release from rat carotid body chemoreceptor cells by nicotinic ACh receptors; 3) The effects of caffeine on peripheral control of breathing and the identity of the adenosine receptors involved in adenosine and caffeine effects on carotid body chemoreceptors; 4) The interactions between dopamine D2 receptors and adenosine A2B receptors that modulate the release of catecholamines (CA) from the rat carotid body; 5) The effect of chronic caffeine intake i.e. the continuous blockage of adenosine receptors thereby simulating a caffeine dependence, on the carotid body function in control and chronically hypoxic rats. The methodologies used in this work included: molecular biology techniques (e.g. immunocytochemistry and western-blot), biochemical techniques (e.g. neurotransmitter quantification by HPLC, bioluminescence and radioisotopic methods), electrophysiological techniques (e.g. action potential recordings) and ventilatory recordings using whole-body plethysmography. It was observed that: 1) CB chemoreceptor sensitivity to hypoxia could be related to its low threshold for the release of adenosine because moderate acute hypoxia (10% O2) increased adenosine concentrations released from the CB by 44% but was not a strong enough stimulus to evoke adenosine release from superior cervical ganglia and arterial tissue; 2) Acetylcholine (ACh) modulates the release of adenosine/5’-adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from CB in moderate hypoxia through the activation of nicotinic receptors with α4 and ß2 receptor subunits, suggesting that the excitatory role of ACh in chemosensory activity includes indirect activation of purinergic receptors by adenosine and ATP, which strongly supports the hypothesis that ATP/adenosine are important mediators in chemotransduction; 3) adenosine increases the release of CA from rat CB chemoreceptor cells via A2B receptors; 4) the inhibitory effects of caffeine on CB chemoreceptors are mediated by antagonism of postsynaptic A2A and presynaptic A2B adenosine receptors indicating that chemosensory activity elicited by hypoxia is controlled by adenosine; 5) The release of CA from rat CB chemoreceptor cells is modulated by adenosine through an antagonistic interaction between A2B and D2 receptors, for the first time herein described; 6) chronic caffeine treatment did not significantly alter the basal function of CB in normoxic rats assessed as the dynamics of their neurotransmitters, dopamine, ATP and adenosine, and the CSN chemosensory activity. In contrast, the responses to hypoxia in these animals were facilitated by chronic caffeine intake because it increased the ventilatory response, slightly increased CSN chemosensory activity and increased dopamine (DA) and ATP release; 7) In comparison with normoxic rats, chronically hypoxic rats exhibited an increase in several parameters: ventilatory hypoxic response; basal and hypoxic CSN activity; tyrosine hydroxylase expression, CA content, synthesis and release; basal and hypoxic adenosine release; and in contrast a normal basal release and diminished hypoxia-induced ATP release; 8) Finally, in contrast to chronically hypoxic rats, chronic caffeine treatment did not alter the basal CSN chemosensory activity. Nevertheless, the responses to mild and intense hypoxia, and hypercapnia, were diminished. This inhibitory effect of chronic caffeine in CB output is compensated by central mechanisms, as the minute ventilation parameter in basal conditions and in response to acute hypoxic challenges remained unaltered in rats exposed to chronic hypoxia. We can conclude that adenosine both in acute and chronically hypoxic conditions have an excitatory role in the CB chemosensory activity, acting directly on adenosine A2A receptors present postsynaptically in CSN, and acting presynaptically via A2B receptors controlling the release of dopamine in chemoreceptor cells. We suggest that A2B -D2 adenosine / dopamine interactions at the CB could explain the increase in CA metabolism caused by chronic ingestion of caffeine during chronic hypoxia. It was also concluded that adenosine facilitates CB sensitisation to chronic hypoxia although this effect is further compensated at the central nervous system.-------- RESUMO: Os corpos carotídeos (CB) são pequenos orgãos emparelhados localizados na bifurcação da artéria carótida comum. Estes órgãos são sensíveis a variações na PaO2, PaCO2, pH e temperatura sendo responsáveis pela hiperventilação que ocorre em resposta à hipóxia, contribuindo também para a hiperventilação que acompanha a acidose metabólica e respiratória. As células quimiorreceptoras (tipo I ou glómicas) do corpo carotídeo respondem às variações de gases arteriais libertando neurotransmissores que activam as terminações sensitivas do nervo do seio carotídeo (CSN) conduzindo a informação ao centro respiratório central. Está ainda por esclarecer qual o neurotransmissor (ou os neurotransmissores) responsável pela sinalização hipóxica no corpo carotídeo. A adenosina é um neurotransmissor excitatório no CB que aumenta a actividade eléctrica do CSN induzindo a hiperventilação através da activação de receptores A2. A importância destes efeitos da adenosina na quimiorrecepção, descritos em ratos e gatos, foi reforçada por resultados obtidos em voluntários saudáveis onde a infusão intravenosa de adenosina em induz hiperventilação e dispneia, efeito atribuído a uma activação do CB uma vez que a adenosina não atravessa a barreira hemato-encefálica e o efeito é quanto maior quanto mais perto do CB for a administração de adenosina. O presente trabalho foi realizado com o objectivo de esclarecer qual o significado funcional da adenosina na quimiorrecepção no CB em animais controlo e em animais submetidos a hipoxia crónica mantida. Para alcançar este objectivo investigou-se: 1) o efeito da hipóxia moderada sobre a libertação de adenosina numa preparação in vitro de CB e a especificidade desta mesma libertação comparativamente com outros tecidos não quimiossensitivos, assim como as vias metabólicas de produção e libertação de adenosina no CB em normoxia e hipóxia; 2) a modulação da libertação de adenosina/ATP das células quimiorreceptoras do CB por receptores nicotínicos de ACh; 3) os efeitos da cafeína no controlo periférico da ventilação e a identidade dos receptores de adenosina envolvidos nos efeitos da adenosina e da cafeína nos quimiorreceptores do CB; 4) as interacções entre os receptores D2 de dopamina e os receptores A2B de adenosina que modulam a libertação de catecolaminas (CA) no CB de rato e; 5) o efeito da ingestão crónica de cafeína, isto é, o contínuo bloqueio e dos receptores de adenosina, simulando assim o consumo crónico da cafeína, tal como ocorre na população humana mundial e principalmente no ocidente, na função do corpo carotídeo em ratos controlo e em ratos submetidos a hipoxia crónica. Os métodos utilizados neste trabalho incluíram: técnicas de biologia molecular como imunocitoquímica e western-blot; técnicas bioquímicas, tais como a quantificação de neurotransmissores por HPLC, bioluminescência e métodos radioisotópicos; técnicas electrofisiológicas como o registro de potenciais eléctricos do nervo do seio carotídeo in vitro; e registros ventilatórios in vivo em animais não anestesiados e em livre movimento (pletismografia). Observou-se que: 1) a especificidade dos quimiorreceptores do CB como sensores de O2 está correlacionada com o baixo limiar de libertação de adenosina em resposta à hipóxia dado que a libertação de adenosina do CB aumenta 44% em resposta a uma hipóxia moderada (10% O2), que no entanto não é um estímulo suficientemente intenso para evocar a libertação de adenosina do gânglio cervical superior ou do tecido arterial. Observou-se também que aproximadamente 40% da adenosina libertada pelo CB provém do catabolismo extracelular do ATP quer em normóxia quer em hipóxia moderada, sendo que PO2 reduzidas induzem a libertação de adenosina via activação do sistema de transporte equilibrativo ENT1. 2) a ACh modula a libertação de adenosina /ATP do CB em resposta à hipoxia moderada sugerindo que o papel excitatório da ACh na actividade quimiossensora inclui a activação indirecta de receptores purinérgicos pela adenosina e ATP, indicando que a adenosina e o ATP poderiam actuar como mediadores importantes no processo de quimiotransducção uma vez que: a) a activação dos receptores nicotínicos de ACh no CB em normóxia estimula a libertação de adenosina (max 36%) provindo aparentemente da degradação extracelular do ATP. b) a caracterização farmacológica dos receptores nicotínicos de ACh envolvidos na estimulação da libertação de adenosina do CB revelou que os receptores nicotínicos de ACh envolvidos são constituídos por subunidades α4ß2. 3) a adenosina modula a libertação de catecolaminas das células quimiorreceptoras do CB através de receptores de adenosina A2B dado que: a)a cafeína, um antagonista não selectivo dos receptores de adenosina, inibiu a libertação de CA quer em normóxia quer em resposta a estímulos de baixa intensidade sendo ineficaz na libertação induzida por estímulos de intensidade superior; b) o DPCPX e do MRS1754 mimetizaram os efeitos da cafeína no CB sendo o SCH58621 incapaz de induzir a libertação de CA indicando que os efeitos da cafeína seriam mediados por receptores A2B de adenosina cuja presença nas células quimiorreceptoras do CB demonstramos por imunocitoquímica. 4) a aplicação aguda de cafeína inibiu em 52% a actividade quimiossensora do CSN induzida pela hipóxia sendo este efeito mediado respectivamente por receptores de adenosina A2A pós-sinápticos e A2B pré-sinápticos indicando que a actividade quimiossensora induzida pela hipóxia é controlada pela adenosina. 5) existe uma interacção entre os receptores A2B e D2 que controla a libertação de CA do corpo carotídeo de rato uma vez que: a) os antagonistas dos receptores D2, domperidona e haloperidol, aumentaram a libertação basal e evocada de CA das células quimiorreceptoras confirmando a presença de autorreceptores D2 no CB de rato que controlam a libertação de CA através de um mecanismo de feed-back negativo. b) o sulpiride, um antagonista dos receptores D2, aumentou a libertação de CA das células quimiorreceptoras revertendo o efeito inibitório da cafeína sobre esta mesma libertação; c) a propilnorapomorfina, um agonista D2 inibiu a libertação basal e evocada de CA sendo este efeito revertido pela NECA, um agonista dos receptores A2B. O facto de a NECA potenciar o efeito do haloperidol na libertação de CA sugere que a interacção entre os receptores D2 e A2B poderia também ocorrer ao nível de segundos mensageiros, como o cAMP. 6) a ingestão crónica de cafeína em ratos controlo (normóxicos) não alterou significativamente a função basal do CB medida como a dinâmica dos seus neurotransmissores, dopamina, ATP e adenosina e como actividade quimiossensora do CSN. Contrariamente aos efeitos basais, a ingestão crónica de cafeína facilitou a resposta à hipóxia, dado que aumentou o efeito no volume minuto respiratórioapresentando-se também uma clara tendência para aumentar a actividade quimiossensora do CSN e aumentar a libertação de ATP e dopamina.7) após um período de 15 dias de hipóxia crónica era evidente o fenómeno de aclimatização dado que as respostas ventilatórias à hipóxia se encontram aumentadas, assim como a actividade quimiossensora do CSN basal e induzida pela hipóxia. As alterações observadas no metabolismo da dopamina, assim como na libertação basal de dopamina e de adenosina poderiam contribuir para a aclimatização durante a hipoxia crónica. A libertação aumentada de adenosina em resposta à hipóxia aguda em ratos hipóxicos crónicos sugere um papel da adenosina na manutenção/aumento das respostas ventilatórias à hipóxia aguda durante a hipóxia crónica. Observou-se também que a libertação de ATP induzida pela hipóxia aguda se encontra diminuída em hipóxia crónica, contudo a ingestão crónica de cafeína reverteu este efeito para valores similares aos valores controlo, sugerindo que a adenosina possa modular a libertação de ATP em hipóxia crónica. 8) a ingestão crónica de cafeína em ratos hipóxicos crónicos induziu o aumento do metabolismo de CA no CB, medido como expressão de tirosina hidroxilase, conteúdo, síntese e libertação de CA. 9) a ingestão crónica de cafeína não provocou quaisquer alterações na actividade quimiossensora do CSN em ratos hipóxicos crónicos no entanto, as respostas do CSN à hipóxia aguda intensa e moderada e à hipercapnia encontram-se diminuídas. Este efeito inibitório que provém da ingestão crónica de cafeína parece ser compensado ao nível dos quimiorreceptores centrais dado que os parâmetros ventilatórios em condições basais e em resposta à hipoxia aguda não se encontram modificados em ratos expostos durante 15 dias a uma atmosfera hipóxica. Resumindo podemos assim concluir que a adenosina quer em situações de hipoxia aguda quer em condições de hipoxia crónica tem um papel excitatório na actividade quimiossensora do CB actuando directamente nos receptores A2A presentes pós-sinapticamente no CSN, assim como facilitando a libertação de dopamina pré-sinapticamente via receptores A2B presentes nas células quimiorreceptoras. A interacção negativa entre os receptores A2B e D2 observadas nas células quimiorreceptoras do CB poderia explicar o aumento do metabolismo de CA observado após a ingestão crónica de cafeína em animais hipóxicos. Conclui-se ainda que durante a aclimatização à hipóxia a acção inibitória da cafeína, em termos de resposta ventilatória, mediada pelos quimiorreceptores periféricos é compensada pelos efeitos excitatórios desta xantina ao nível do quimiorreceptores centrais.------- RESUMEN Los cuerpos carotídeos (CB) son órganos emparejados que están localizados en la bifurcación de la arteria carótida común. Estos órganos son sensibles a variaciones en la PaO2, en la PaCO2, pH y temperatura siendo responsables de la hiperventilación que ocurre en respuesta a la hipoxia, contribuyendo también a la hiperventilación que acompaña a la acidosis metabólica y respiratoria. Las células quimiorreceptoras (tipo I o glómicas) del cuerpo carotídeo responden a las variaciones de gases arteriales liberando neurotransmissores que activan las terminaciones sensitivas del nervio del seno carotídeo (CSN) llevando la información al centro respiratorio central. Todavía esta por clarificar cual el neurotransmisor (o neurotransmisores) responsable por la señalización hipóxica en el CB. La adenosina es un neurotransmisor excitatório en el CB ya que aumenta la actividad del CSN e induce la hiperventilación a través de la activación de receptores de adenosina del subtipo A2. La importancia de estos efectos de la adenosina en la quimiorrecepción, descritos en ratas y gatos, ha sido fuertemente reforzada por resultados obtenidos en voluntarios sanos en los que la infusión intravenosa de adenosina induce hiperventilación y dispnea, efectos estés que han sido atribuidos a una activación del CB ya que la adenosina no cruza la barrera hemato-encefalica y el efecto es tanto más grande cuanto más cercana del CB es la administración. Este trabajo ha sido realizado con el objetivo de investigar cual el significado funcional de la adenosina en la quimiorrecepción en el CB en animales controlo y en animales sometidos a hipoxia crónica sostenida. Para alcanzar este objetivo se ha estudiado: 1) el efecto de la hipoxia moderada en la liberación de adenosina en una preparación in vitro de CB y la especificidad de esta liberación en comparación con otros tejidos no-quimiosensitivos, así como las vías metabólicas de producción y liberación de adenosina del órgano en normoxia y hipoxia; 2) la modulación de la liberación de adenosina/ATP de las células quimiorreceptoras del CB por receptores nicotínicos de ACh; 3) los efectos de la cafeína en el controlo periférico de la ventilación y la identidad de los receptores de adenosina involucrados en los efectos de la adenosina y cafeína en los quimiorreceptores del CB; 4) las interacciones entre los receptores D2 de dopamina y los receptores A2B de adenosina que modulan la liberación de catecolaminas (CA) en el CB de rata y; 5) el efecto de la ingestión crónica de cafeína, es decir, el bloqueo sostenido de los receptores de adenosina, simulando la dependencia de cafeína observada en la populación mundial del occidente, en la función del CB en ratas controlo y sometidas a hipoxia crónica sostenida. Los métodos utilizados en este trabajo incluirán: técnicas de biología molecular como imunocitoquímica y western-blot; técnicas bioquímicas, tales como la cuantificación de neurotransmissores por HPLC, bioluminescencia y métodos radioisotópicos; técnicas electrofisiológicas como el registro de potenciales eléctricos del nervio do seno carotídeo in vitro; y registros ventilatórios in vivo en animales no anestesiados y en libre movimiento (pletismografia). Se observó que: 1) la sensibilidad de los quimiorreceptores de CB esta correlacionada con un bajo umbral de liberación de adenosina en respuesta a la hipoxia ya que en respuesta a una hipoxia moderada (10% O2) la liberación de adenosina en el CB aumenta un 44%, sin embargo esta PaO2 no es un estimulo suficientemente fuerte para inducir la liberación de adenosina del ganglio cervical superior o del tejido arterial; se observó también que aproximadamente 40% de la adenosina liberada del CB proviene del catabolismo extracelular del ATP en normoxia y en hipoxia moderada, y que bajas PO2 inducen la liberación de adenosina vía activación del sistema de transporte equilibrativo ENT1. 2) la ACh modula la liberación de adenosina /ATP del CB en respuesta a la hipóxia moderada lo que sugiere que el papel excitatório de la ACh en la actividad quimiosensora incluye la activación indirecta de receptores purinérgicos por la adenosina y el ATP, indicando que la adenosina y el ATP pueden actuar como mediadores importantes en el proceso de quimiotransducción ya que: a) la activación de los receptores nicotínicos de ACh en el CB en normoxia estimula la liberación de adenosina (max 36%) que aparentemente proviene de la degradación extracelular del ATP. Se observó también que este aumento de adenosina en el CB en hipoxia ha sido antagonizado parcialmente por antagonistas de estos mismos receptores; b) la caracterización farmacológica de los receptores nicotínicos de ACh involucrados en la estimulación de la liberación de adenosina del CB ha revelado que los receptores nicotínicos de ACh involucrados son constituidos por sub-unidades α4ß2. 3) la adenosina modula la liberación de CA de las células quimiorreceptoras del CB a través de receptores de adenosina A2B ya que: a) la cafeína, un antagonista no selectivo de los receptores de adenosina, ha inhibido la liberación de CA en normoxia y en respuesta a estímulos de baja intensidad siendo ineficaz en la liberación inducida por estímulos de intensidad superior; b) el DPCPX y el MRS1754 ha mimetizado los efectos de la cafeína en el CB y el SCH58621 ha sido incapaz de inducir la liberación de CA lo que sugiere que los efectos de la cafeína son mediados por receptores A2B de adenosina que están localizados pré-sinapticamente en las células quimiorreceptoras del CB. 4) la aplicación aguda de cafeína ha inhibido en 52% la actividad quimiosensora del CSN inducida por la hipoxia siendo este efecto mediado respectivamente por receptores de adenosina A2A pós-sinápticos y A2B pré-sinápticos lo que indica que la actividad quimiosensora inducida por la hipoxia es controlada por la adenosina. 5) existe una interacción entre los receptores A2B y D2 que controla la liberación de CA del CB de rata ya que: a) el sulpiride, un antagonista de los receptores D2, ha aumentado la liberación de CA de las células quimiorreceptoras revertiendo el efecto inhibitorio de la cafeína sobre esta misma liberación; b) los antagonistas de los receptores D2, domperidona y haloperidol, han aumentado la liberación basal e evocada de CA de las células quimiorreceptoras confirmando la presencia de autorreceptores D2 en el CB de rata que controlan la liberación de CA a través de un mecanismo de feed-back negativo; c) la propilnorapomorfina, un agonista D2, ha inhibido la liberación basal e evocada de CA sendo este efecto revertido por la NECA, un agonista de los receptores A2B. Ya que la NECA potencia el efecto del haloperidol en la liberación de CA la interacción entre los D2 y A2B puede también ocurrir al nivel de segundos mensajeros, como el cAMP. 6) la ingestión crónica de cafeína en ratas controlo (normóxicas) no ha cambiado significativamente la función basal del CB medida como la dinámica de sus neurotransmisores, dopamina, ATP y adenosina y como actividad quimiosensora del CSN. Al revés de lo que pasa con los efectos básales, la ingestión crónica de cafeína facilitó la respuesta a la hipóxia, ya que ha aumentado la respuesta ventilatória medida como volumen minuto presentando también una clara tendencia para aumentar la actividad quimiosensora del CSN y aumentar la liberación de ATP y dopamina. 7. Después de un período de 15 días de hipoxia crónica se puede observar el fenómeno de climatización ya que las respuestas ventilatórias a la hipoxia están aumentadas, así como la actividad quimiosensora del CSN basal e inducida por la hipoxia. Los cambios observados en el metabolismo de la dopamina, así como en la liberación basal de dopamina y de adenosina podrían contribuir para la climatización en hipoxia crónica. El aumento en la liberación de adenosina en respuesta a la hipoxia aguda en ratas sometidas a hipoxia crónica sugiere un papel para la adenosina en el mantenimiento/aumento de las respuestas ventilatórias a la hipoxia aguda en hipoxia crónica sostenida. Se ha observado también que la liberación de ATP inducida por la hipoxia aguda está disminuida en hipoxia crónica y que la ingestión crónica de cafeína reverte este efecto para valores similares a los valores controlo, sugiriendo que la adenosina podría modular la liberación de ATP en hipoxia crónica. 8. la ingestión crónica de cafeína ha inducido el aumento del metabolismo de CA en el CB en ratas hipóxicas crónicas, medido como expresión de la tirosina hidroxilase, contenido, síntesis y liberación de CA. 9. la ingestión crónica de cafeína no ha inducido cambios en la actividad quimiosensora del CSN en ratas hipóxicas crónicas sin embargo las respuestas do CSN a una hipoxia intensa y moderada y a la hipercapnia están disminuidas. Este efecto inhibitorio que es debido a la ingestión crónica de cafeína es compensado al nivel de los quimiorreceptores centrales ya que los parámetros ventilatórios en condiciones básales y en respuesta a la hipoxia aguda no están modificados en ratas expuestas durante 15 días a una atmósfera hipóxica. Resumiendo se puede concluir que la adenosina en situaciones de hipoxia aguda así como en hipoxia crónica tiene un papel excitatório en la actividad quimiosensora del CB actuando directamente en los receptores A2A localizados pós-sinapticamente en el CSN, así como controlando la liberación de dopamina pré-sinaptica vía receptores A2B localizados en las células quimiorreceptoras. Las interacciones entre los receptores A2B y D2 observadas en las células quimiorreceptoras del CB podrían explicar el aumento del metabolismo de CA observado después de la ingestión crónica de cafeína en animales hipóxicos. Por fin, pero no menos importante se puede concluir que durante la climatización a la hipoxia la acción inhibitoria de la cafeína, medida como respuesta ventilatória, mediada por los quimiorreceptores periféricos es compensada por los efectos excitatórios de esta xantina al nivel de los quimiorreceptores centrales.

Voltage Magnitude Analysis Considering Load Curtailment Minimization in Sub-Transmission Networks with Distributed Generators

Most of distribution generation and smart grid research works are dedicated to the study of network operation parameters, reliability among others. However, many of this research works usually uses traditional test systems such as IEEE test systems. This work proposes a voltage magnitude study in presence of fault conditions considering the realistic specifications found in countries like Brazil. The methodology considers a hybrid method of fuzzy set and Monte Carlo simulation based on the fuzzyprobabilistic models and a remedial action algorithm which is based on optimal power flow. To illustrate the application of the proposed method, the paper includes a case study that considers a real 12 bus sub-transmission network.

Human cutaneous leishmaniasis caused by Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis in Santiago del Estero, Argentina: identification of parasites by monoclonal antibodies and isoenzymes

Diagnostic and parasite characterization and identification studies were carried out in human patients with cutaneous leishmaniasis lesions in Santiago del Estero, Northern Province of Argentina. Diagnostic procedures were biopsies of lesions for smears and inoculations in hamster, needle aspirations of material from ulcers for "in vitro" cultures. Immunodiagnostic techniques applied were IFAT-IgG and Montenegro skin test. Primary isolation of eight stocks of leishmanial parasites was achieved from patients with active lesions. All stocks were biologically characterized by their behaviour in hamster, measurements of amastigote and promastigotes and growth "in vitro". Eight stocks were characterized and identified at species level by their reactivity to a cross-panel of sub-genus and specie-specific Monoclonal Antibodies through an Indirect Immunofluorescence technique and a Dot-ELISA. We conclude from the serodeme analysis of Argentina stocks that: stocks MHOM/AR/92/SE-1; SE-2; SE-4; SE-8; SE-8-I; SE-30; SE-34 and SE-36 are Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis. Three Leishmania stocks (SE-1; SE-2 and SE-30) did not react with one highly specie-specific Monoclonal Antibody (Clone: B-18, Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis marker) disclosing two serodeme group patterns. Five out of eight soluble extracts of leishmanial promastigotes were electrophoresed on thin-layer starch gels and examined for the enzyme MPI, Mannose Phosphate Isomerase; MDH, Malate Dehydrogenase; 6PGD, 6 Phosphogluconate Dehydrogenase; NH, Nucleoside Hydrolase, 2-deoxyinosinc as substrate; SOD, Superoxide Dismutase; GPI, Glucose Phosphate Isomerase and ES, Esterase. From the isoenzyme studies we concluded that stocks: MHOM/AR/92/SE-1; SE-2; SE-4; SE-8 and SE-8-I are isoenzymatically Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis. We need to analyze more enzymes before assigning them to a braziliensis zymodeme.

Voltage Analysis and Load Curtailment Minimization in Sub-transmission Networks with Distributed Generation

Most of distributed generation and smart grid research works are dedicated to network operation parameters studies, reliability, etc. However, many of these works normally uses traditional test systems, for instance, IEEE test systems. This paper proposes voltage magnitude and reliability studies in presence of fault conditions, considering realistic conditions found in countries like Brazil. The methodology considers a hybrid method of fuzzy set and Monte Carlo simulation based on the fuzzy-probabilistic models and a remedial action algorithm which is based on optimal power flow. To illustrate the application of the proposed method, the paper includes a case study that considers a real 12-bus sub-transmission network.

New Strategies on Molecular Biology Applied to Microbial Systematics

Systematics is the study of diversity of the organisms and their relationships comprising classification, nomenclature and identification. The term classification or taxonomy means the arrangement of the organisms in groups (rate) and the nomenclature is the attribution of correct international scientific names to organisms and identification is the inclusion of unknown strains in groups derived from classification. Therefore, classification for a stable nomenclature and a perfect identification are required previously. The beginning of the new bacterial systematics era can be remembered by the introduction and application of new taxonomic concepts and techniques, from the 50’s and 60’s. Important progress were achieved using numerical taxonomy and molecular taxonomy. Molecular taxonomy, brought into effect after the emergence of the Molecular Biology resources, provided knowledge that comprises systematics of bacteria, in which occurs great evolutionary interest, or where is observed the necessity of eliminating any environmental interference. When you study the composition and disposition of nucleotides in certain portions of the genetic material, you study searching their genome, much less susceptible to environmental alterations than proteins, codified based on it. In the molecular taxonomy, you can research both DNA and RNA, and the main techniques that have been used in the systematics comprise the build of restriction maps, DNA-DNA hybridization, DNA-RNA hybridization, sequencing of DNA sequencing of sub-units 16S and 23S of rRNA, RAPD, RFLP, PFGE etc. Techniques such as base sequencing, though they are extremely sensible and greatly precise, are relatively onerous and impracticable to the great majority of the bacterial taxonomy laboratories. Several specialized techniques have been applied to taxonomic studies of microorganisms. In the last years, these have included preliminary electrophoretic analysis of soluble proteins and isoenzymes, and subsequently determination of deoxyribonucleic acid base composition and assessment of base sequence homology by means of DNA-RNA hybrid experiments beside others. These various techniques, as expected, have generally indicated a lack of taxonomic information in microbial systematics. There are numberless techniques and methodologies that make bacteria identification and classification study possible, part of them described here, allowing establish different degrees of subspecific and interspecific similarity through phenetic-genetic polymorphism analysis. However, was pointed out the necessity of using more than one technique for better establish similarity degrees within microorganisms. Obtaining data resulting from application of a sole technique isolatedly may not provide significant information from Bacterial Systematics viewpoint