β-Arrestin-mediated Regulation of the Human Ether-a-go-go-Related Gene (hERG) Potassium Channel

The human ether-a-go-go-related gene (hERG) encodes the voltage-gated K+ channel, hERG (Kv11.1). This channel passes the rapidly-activating delayed rectifier K+ current (IKr), which is important for cardiac repolarization. A reduction in IKr due to loss-of-function mutations or drug interactions causes long QT syndrome (LQTS), which can lead to cardiac arrhythmias and sudden cardiac death. The density of hERG channels in the plasma membrane is a key determinant of normal physiological function, and is balanced by trafficking to and from the cell surface. Many LQTS-associated hERG mutations result in a trafficking deficiency of otherwise functional channels. Thus, elucidating mechanisms of hERG regulation at the plasma membrane is useful for the prevention and treatment of LQTS. We previously demonstrated that M3 muscarinic receptor activation increases mature hERG expression through a Gq protein-dependent protein kinase C (PKC) pathway. In addition to conventional Gq protein-coupling, M3 receptors recruit β-arrestins upon agonist binding. Traditionally known for their role in receptor desensitization and internalization, β-arrestins also act as adaptor proteins to facilitate G protein-independent signaling. In the present work, I investigated the exclusive effect of β-arrestin signaling on hERG expression by utilizing an arrestin-biased M3 designer receptor (M3D-arr) exclusively activated by clozapine-N-oxide (CNO). By expressing M3D-arr in hERG-HEK cells and treating with CNO under various conditions, I found that M3D-arr activation increased mature hERG expression and current. Within this paradigm, M3D-arr recruited β-arrestin to the plasma membrane, and promoted the PI3K-dependent activation of Akt. I further found that the activated Akt acted through phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate 5-kinase (PIKfyve) and Rab11 to facilitate endosomal recycling of hERG channels to the plasma membrane.

An examination of MS candidate genes identified as differentially regulated in multiple sclerosis plaque tissue, using absolute and comparative real-time Q-PCR analysis

In our laboratory, we have developed methods in real-time detection and quantitative-polymerase chain reaction (Q-PCR) to analyse the relative levels of gene expression in post mortem brain tissues. We have then applied this method to examine differences in gene activity between normal white matter (NWM) and plaque tissue from multiple sclerosis (MS) patients. Genes were selected based on their association with pathology and through identification by previously conducted global gene expression analysis. Plaque tissue was obtained from secondary progressive (SP) patients displaying chronic active, as well as acute pathologies; while NWM from the same location was obtained from age- and sex-matched controls (normal patients). In this study, we used both SYBR Green I supplementation and commercially available mixes to assess both comparative and absolute levels of gene activity. The results of both methods compared favourably for four of the five genes examined (P < 0.05, Pearsons), while differences in gene expression between chronic active and acute pathologies were also identified. For example, a >50-fold increase in osteopontin (Spp1) and inositol 1-4-5 phosphate 3 kinase B (Itpkb) levels in acute plaques contrasted with the 5-fold or less increase in chronic active plaques (P < 0.05, unpaired t test). By contrast, there was no significant difference in the levels of the MS marker and calcium-dependent protease (Calpain, Capns1) in MS plaque tissue. In summary, Q-PCR analysis using SYBR Green I has allowed us to economically obtain what may be clinically significant information from small amounts of the CNS, providing an opportunity for further clinical investigations.

Pten and Ndufb8 aberrations in cervical cancer tissue

Cervical cancer is one of the world's major health issues. Despite many studies in this field, the carcinogenetic events of malignant conversion in cervical tumours have not been significantly characterised. The first aim of this project was to investigate the mutation status of the tumour suppressor gene- Phosphatase and Tension Homolog (PTEN)- in cervical cancer tissue. The second aim of this study was the analysis in the same cervical cancer tissue for aberrations in the mitochondrial electron transport chain subunit gene NDUFB8, which is localised to the same chromosomal contig as PTEN. The third aim was the evaluation of the potential therapeutic anti-cancer drug 2,4-Thiazolidinediones (TZDs) and its affect in regulating the PTEN protein in a cervical cancer cell line (HeLa). To approach the aims, paraffin-embedded cancerous cervical tissue and non-cancerous cervical tissue were obtained. DNA recovered from those tissues was then used to investigate the putative genomic changes regarding the NDUFB8 gene utilising SYBR Green I Real-Time PCR. The PTEN gene was studied via Dual-Labelled probe Real-Time PCR. To investigate the protein expression change of the PTEN protein, HeLa cells were firstly treated with different concentrations of 2,4-Thiazolidinediones and the level of PTEN protein expression was then observed utilising standard protein assays. Results indicated that there were putative copy-number changes between the cancerous cervical tissue and non-cancerous cervical tissue, with regard to the PTEN locus. This implies a potential gain of the PTEN gene in cancerous cervical tissue. With regards to normal cervical tissue versus cancerous cervical tissue no significant melting temperature differences were observed with the SYBR Green I Real-Time PCR in respect to the NDUFB8 gene. A putative up-regulation of PTEN protein was observed in TZD treated HeLa cells. © 2008 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC.

Quantification of gammaH2AX foci in response to ionising radiation

DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs), which are induced by either endogenous metabolic processes or by exogenous sources, are one of the most critical DNA lesions with respect to survival and preservation of genomic integrity. An early response to the induction of DSBs is phosphorylation of the H2A histone variant, H2AX, at the serine-139 residue, in the highly conserved C-terminal SQEY motif, forming gammaH2AX(1). Following induction of DSBs, H2AX is rapidly phosphorylated by the phosphatidyl-inosito 3-kinase (PIKK) family of proteins, ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM), DNA-protein kinase catalytic subunit and ATM and RAD3-related (ATR)(2). Typically, only a few base-pairs (bp) are implicated in a DSB, however, there is significant signal amplification, given the importance of chromatin modifications in DNA damage signalling and repair. Phosphorylation of H2AX mediated predominantly by ATM spreads to adjacent areas of chromatin, affecting approximately 0.03% of total cellular H2AX per DSB(2,3). This corresponds to phosphorylation of approximately 2000 H2AX molecules spanning approximately 2 Mbp regions of chromatin surrounding the site of the DSB and results in the formation of discrete gammaH2AX foci which can be easily visualized and quantitated by immunofluorescence microscopy(2). The loss of gammaH2AX at DSB reflects repair, however, there is some controversy as to what defines complete repair of DSBs; it has been proposed that rejoining of both strands of DNA is adequate however, it has also been suggested that re-instatement of the original chromatin state of compaction is necessary(4-8). The disappearence of gammaH2AX involves at least in part, dephosphorylation by phosphatases, phosphatase 2A and phosphatase 4C(5,6). Further, removal of gammaH2AX by redistribution involving histone exchange with H2A.Z has been implicated(7,8). Importantly, the quantitative analysis of gammaH2AX foci has led to a wide range of applications in medical and nuclear research. Here, we demonstrate the most commonly used immunofluorescence method for evaluation of initial DNA damage by detection and quantitation of gammaH2AX foci in gamma-irradiated adherent human keratinocytes(9)

Evaluation of the spatial distribution of γH2AX following ionizing radiation

An early molecular response to DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) is phosphorylation of the Ser-139 residue within the terminal SQEY motif of the histone H2AX1,2. This phosphorylation of H2AX is mediated by the phosphatidyl-inosito 3-kinase (PI3K) family of proteins, ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM), DNA-protein kinase catalytic subunit and ATM and RAD3-related (ATR)3. The phosphorylated form of H2AX, referred to as γH2AX, spreads to adjacent regions of chromatin from the site of the DSB, forming discrete foci, which are easily visualized by immunofluorecence microscopy3. Analysis and quantitation of γH2AX foci has been widely used to evaluate DSB formation and repair, particularly in response to ionizing radiation and for evaluating the efficacy of various radiation modifying compounds and cytotoxic compounds Given the exquisite specificity and sensitivity of this de novo marker of DSBs, it has provided new insights into the processes of DNA damage and repair in the context of chromatin. For example, in radiation biology the central paradigm is that the nuclear DNA is the critical target with respect to radiation sensitivity. Indeed, the general consensus in the field has largely been to view chromatin as a homogeneous template for DNA damage and repair. However, with the use of γH2AX as molecular marker of DSBs, a disparity in γ-irradiation-induced γH2AX foci formation in euchromatin and heterochromatin has been observed5-7. Recently, we used a panel of antibodies to either mono-, di- or tri- methylated histone H3 at lysine 9 (H3K9me1, H3K9me2, H3K9me3) which are epigenetic imprints of constitutive heterochromatin and transcriptional silencing and lysine 4 (H3K4me1, H3K4me2, H3K4me3), which are tightly correlated actively transcribing euchromatic regions, to investigate the spatial distribution of γH2AX following ionizing radiation8. In accordance with the prevailing ideas regarding chromatin biology, our findings indicated a close correlation between γH2AX formation and active transcription9. Here we demonstrate our immunofluorescence method for detection and quantitation of γH2AX foci in non-adherent cells, with a particular focus on co-localization with other epigenetic markers, image analysis and 3Dmodeling.

Quantitation of gammaH2AX foci in tissue samples

DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) are particularly lethal and genotoxic lesions, that can arise either by endogenous (physiological or pathological) processes or by exogenous factors, particularly ionizing radiation and radiomimetic compounds. Phosphorylation of the H2A histone variant, H2AX, at the serine-139 residue, in the highly conserved C-terminal SQEY motif, forming γH2AX, is an early response to DNA double-strand breaks1. This phosphorylation event is mediated by the phosphatidyl-inosito 3-kinase (PI3K) family of proteins, ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM), DNA-protein kinase catalytic subunit and ATM and RAD3-related (ATR)2. Overall, DSB induction results in the formation of discrete nuclear γH2AX foci which can be easily detected and quantitated by immunofluorescence microscopy2. Given the unique specificity and sensitivity of this marker, analysis of γH2AX foci has led to a wide range of applications in biomedical research, particularly in radiation biology and nuclear medicine. The quantitation of γH2AX foci has been most widely investigated in cell culture systems in the context of ionizing radiation-induced DSBs. Apart from cellular radiosensitivity, immunofluorescence based assays have also been used to evaluate the efficacy of radiation-modifying compounds. In addition, γH2AX has been used as a molecular marker to examine the efficacy of various DSB-inducing compounds and is recently being heralded as important marker of ageing and disease, particularly cancer3. Further, immunofluorescence-based methods have been adapted to suit detection and quantitation of γH2AX foci ex vivo and in vivo4,5. Here, we demonstrate a typical immunofluorescence method for detection and quantitation of γH2AX foci in mouse tissues.

SOCS3 expression induced by PIM2 requires PKC and PI3K signaling

Initiation of proinflammatory host immunity in response to infection represents as a key event in effective control and containment of the pathogen at the site of infection as well as in elicitation of robust immune memory responses. In the current investigation, we demonstrate that an integral cell wall antigen of the mycobacterial envelope, Phosphatidyl-myo-inositol dimannosides (PIM2) triggers Suppressor of cytokine signaling (SOCS) 3 expression in macrophages in a Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2)-MyD88 dependent manner. Data derived from signaling perturbations suggest the involvement of phosphoinositide-3 kinase (PI3K) and protein kinase C (PKC) signaling pathways during PIM2 induced SOCS3 expression. Further, pharmacological inhibition of ERK1/2, but not of p38 MAP kinase or JNK abrogated the induced expression of SOCS3. The PIM2 induced activation of ERK1/2 was dependent on the activation of PI3K or PKC signaling which in turn regulated p65 nuclear factor -kappa B (NF-kappa B) nuclear translocation. Overall, current study delineates the role for PI3K-PKC axis and ERK1/2 signaling as key signaling events during PIM2 induced SOCS3 expression in macrophages.

PIM2 Induced COX-2 and MMP-9 Expression in Macrophages Requires PI3K and Notch1 Signaling

Activation of inflammatory immune responses during granuloma formation by the host upon infection of mycobacteria is one of the crucial steps that is often associated with tissue remodeling and breakdown of the extracellular matrix. In these complex processes, cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) plays a major role in chronic inflammation and matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) significantly in tissue remodeling. In this study, we investigated the molecular mechanisms underlying Phosphatidyl-myo-inositol dimannosides (PIM2), an integral component of the mycobacterial envelope, triggered COX-2 and MMP-9 expression in macrophages. PIM2 triggers the activation of Phosphoinositide-3 Kinase (PI3K) and Notch1 signaling leading to COX-2 and MMP-9 expression in a Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2)-MyD88 dependent manner. Notch1 signaling perturbations data demonstrate the involvement of the cross-talk with members of PI3K and Mitogen activated protein kinase pathway. Enforced expression of the cleaved Notch1 in macrophages induces the expression of COX-2 and MMP-9. PIM2 triggered significant p65 nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-kappa B) nuclear translocation that was dependent on activation of PI3K or Notch1 signaling. Furthermore, COX-2 and MMP-9 expression requires Notch1 mediated recruitment of uppressor of Hairless (CSL) and NF-kappa B to respective promoters. Inhibition of PIM2 induced COX-2 resulted in marked reduction in MMP-9 expression clearly implicating the role of COX-2 dependent signaling events in driving the MMP-9 expression. Taken together, these data implicate PI3K and Notch1 signaling as obligatory early proximal signaling events during PIM2 induced COX-2 and MMP-9 expression in macrophages.

Sinalização da grelina no coração de camundongos obesos após hipernutrição durante a lactação

A grelina é um ligante endógeno do receptor secretagogo do hormônio do crescimento (GHSR), potente estimulador da liberação do hormônio de crescimento (GH), ingestão alimentar, e adiposidade. Além disso, sua ação hormonal inclui regulação do metabolismo energético cardíaco. Entretanto, a hipernutrição no início da vida leva ao desenvolvimento da obesidade, induz hipertrofia cardíaca, compromete a função cardíaca, e gera insuficiência cardíaca na vida adulta. Avaliar proteínas chaves no processo de sinalização da grelina no remodelamento cardíaco no coração de camundongos obesos após a hipernutrição na lactação. A obesidade foi induzida por redução de ninhada e camundongos adultos (180 dias) foram divididos em: grupo hiperalimentado, GH com obesidade decorrente de hipernutrição na lactação e controle, GC. Cardiomiócitos (cmi) do ventrículo esquerdo foram analisados por microscopia de luz e estereologia, o conteúdo e fosforilação de proteínas cardíacas: receptor de grelina (hormônio do crescimento secretagogo receptor 1a, GHSR-1a), proteína quinase-B (AKT e pAKT), phosphatidil inositol 3-quinase (PI3K), proteína quinase ativada por AMP (AMPK e pAMPK), m-TOR, pmTOR, Bax, Bcl2 e actina foram analizados por western blotting. A expressão gênica do GHSR-1a foi analisada por PCR em tempo real. A respirometria de alta resolução dos cardiomiócitos foi analisada por oxígrafo OROBOROS. Significância estatística (P< 0,05) determinada por teste t-Student não-pareado. Nossos dados demonstram que a hipernutrição na lactação induz aumento no peso corporal, iniciado aos 10 dias de idade, persistindo até os 180 dias de idade. A glicemia, peso do fígado, e da gordura visceral foram maiores no grupo GH. Além disso, o grupo GH também apresentou aumento no peso do coração e razão peso do coração/CT (comprimento da tíbia), indicando hipertrofia e remodelamento cardíaco, aumento na expressão e conteúdo de GHSR-1a no coração, associado ao maior conteúdo de PI3K e maior conteúdo e fosforilação de AKT, diminuição no conteúdo de Bcl2. Em contraste, o conteúdo e fosforilação da AMPK e mTOR no coração não foram diferentes entre os grupos. Os níveis de grelina plasmático no GH foram menores. A respiração do GH com grelina foi menor que no GC com grelina. A incubação das fibras cardíacas com grelina resultou em aumento do fluxo respiratório após adição de citocromo c nos grupos com grelina, indicando dano à membrana mitocondrial e extravazamento de citocromo c. Os grupos GC com grelina e GH sem grelina apresentaram RCR menor comparado ao GC sem grelina, indicando desacoplamento mitocondrial. Nossos resultados mostram que a hipernutrição na lactação induz diminuição do nível de grelina plasmática e aumento da expressão do GHS-R1a no cardiomiócito do animal quando adulto. Tal processo determina aumento da sensibilidade a grelina no coração, processo que ocorre independentemente de variações do AMPK e mTOR. Sugerimos uma redução no efeito protetor da ação da grelina na AMPK. Também, demonstramos que o remodelamento do miocárdio nestes animais adultos associa-se a GHSR-1a, PI3K, e fosforilação da AKT, mas não com AMPK e mTOR na vida adulta.

MYC activity mitigates response to rapamycin in prostate cancer through eukaryotic initiation factor 4E-binding protein 1-mediated inhibition of autophagy.

Loss of PTEN and activation of phosphoinositide 3-kinase are commonly observed in advanced prostate cancer. Inhibition of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), a downstream target of phosphoinositide 3-kinase signaling, results in cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in multiple in vitro and in vivo models of prostate cancer. However, single-agent use of mTOR inhibition has limited clinical success, and the identification of molecular events mitigating tumor response to mTOR inhibition remains a critical question. Here, using genetically engineered human prostate epithelial cells (PrEC), we show that MYC, a frequent target of genetic gain in prostate cancers, abrogates sensitivity to rapamycin by decreasing rapamycin-induced cytostasis and autophagy. Analysis of MYC and the mTOR pathway in human prostate tumors and PrEC showed selective increased expression of eukaryotic initiation factor 4E-binding protein 1 (4EBP1) with gain in MYC copy number or forced MYC expression, respectively. We have also found that MYC binds to regulatory regions of the 4EBP1 gene. Suppression of 4EBP1 expression resulted in resensitization of MYC-expressing PrEC to rapamycin and increased autophagy. Taken together, our findings suggest that MYC expression abrogates sensitivity to rapamycin through increased expression of 4EBP1 and reduced autophagy.

beta-arrestin-1 competitively inhibits insulin-induced ubiquitination and degradation of insulin receptor substrate 1.

beta-arrestin-1 is an adaptor protein that mediates agonist-dependent internalization and desensitization of G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and also participates in the process of heterologous desensitization between receptor tyrosine kinases and GPCR signaling. In the present study, we determined whether beta-arrestin-1 is involved in insulin-induced insulin receptor substrate 1 (IRS-1) degradation. Overexpression of wild-type (WT) beta-arrestin-1 attenuated insulin-induced degradation of IRS-1, leading to increased insulin signaling downstream of IRS-1. When endogenous beta-arrestin-1 was knocked down by transfection of beta-arrestin-1 small interfering RNA, insulin-induced IRS-1 degradation was enhanced. Insulin stimulated the association of IRS-1 and Mdm2, an E3 ubiquitin ligase, and this association was inhibited to overexpression of WT beta-arrestin-1, which led by decreased ubiquitin content of IRS-1, suggesting that both beta-arrestin-1 and IRS-1 competitively bind to Mdm2. In summary, we have found the following: (i) beta-arrestin-1 can alter insulin signaling by inhibiting insulin-induced proteasomal degradation of IRS-1; (ii) beta-arrestin-1 decreases the rate of ubiquitination of IRS-1 by competitively binding to endogenous Mdm2, an E3 ligase that can ubiquitinate IRS-1; (iii) dephosphorylation of S412 on beta-arrestin and the amino terminus of beta-arrestin-1 are required for this effect of beta-arrestin on IRS-1 degradation; and (iv) inhibition of beta-arrestin-1 leads to enhanced IRS-1 degradation and accentuated cellular insulin resistance.

Activation of Akt/PKB, increased phosphorylation of Akt substrates and loss and altered distribution of Akt and PTEN are features of Alzheimer's disease pathology

Studies suggest that activation of phosphoinositide 3-kinase-Akt may protect against neuronal cell death in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Here, however, we provide evidence of increased Akt activation, and hyperphosphorylation of critical Akt substrates in AD brain, which link to AD pathogenesis, suggesting that treatments aiming to activate the pathway in AD need to be considered carefully. A different distribution of Akt and phospho-Akt was detected in AD temporal cortex neurons compared with control neurons, with increased levels of active phosphorylated-Akt in particulate fractions, and significant decreases in Akt levels in AD cytosolic fractions, causing increased activation of Akt (phosphorylated-Akt/total Akt ratio) in AD. In concordance, significant increases in the levels of phosphorylation of total Akt substrates, including: GSK3ßSer9, tauSer214, mTORSer2448, and decreased levels of the Akt target, p27kip1, were found in AD temporal cortex compared with controls. A significant loss and altered distribution of the major negative regulator of Akt, PTEN (phosphatase and tensin homologue deleted on chromosome 10), was also detected in AD neurons. Loss of phosphorylated-Akt and PTEN-containing neurons were found in hippocampal CA1 at end stages of AD. Taken together, these results support a potential role for aberrant control of Akt and PTEN signalling in AD.

Nitric Oxide Produced in Response to Engagement of beta 2 Integrins on Human Neutrophils Activates the Monomeric GTPases Rap1 and Rap2 and Promotes Adhesion

We found that engagement of beta 2 integrins on human neutrophils increased the levels of GTP-bound Rap1 and Rap2. Also, the activation of Rap1 was blocked by PP1, SU6656, LY294002, GF109203X, or BAPTA-AM, which indicates that the downstream signaling events in Rap1 activation involve Src tyrosine kinases, phosphoinositide 3-kinase, protein kinase C, and release of calcium. Surprisingly, the integrin-induced activation of Rap2 was not regulated by any of the signaling pathways mentioned above. However, we identified nitric oxide as the signaling molecule involved in beta 2 integrin-induced activation of Rap1 and Rap2. This was illustrated by the fact that engagement of beta 2 integrins increased the production of nitrite, a stable end-product of nitric oxide. Furthermore, pretreatment of neutrophils with N-monomethyl-L-arginine, or 1400W, which are inhibitors of inducible nitric-oxide synthase, blocked integrin-induced activation of Rap1 and Rap2. Similarly, Rp-8pCPT-cGMPS, an inhibitor of cGMP-dependent serine/threonine kinases, also blunted the integrin-induced activation of Rap GTPases. Also nitric oxide production and its downstream activation of cGMP-dependent serine/threonine kinases were essential for proper neutrophil adhesion by beta 2 integrins. Thus, we made the novel findings that beta 2 integrin engagement on human neutrophils triggers production of nitric oxide and its downstream signaling is essential for activation of Rap GTPases and neutrophil adhesion.

Beta2 integrins target Rap GTPases to the plasma membrane by means of degranulation.

We report the novel observation that engagement of ß2 integrins on human neutrophils is accompanied by increased levels of the small GTPases Rap1 and Rap2 in a membrane-enriched fraction and a concomitant decrease of these proteins in a granule-enriched fraction. In parallel, we observed a similar time-dependent decrease of gelatinase B (a marker of specific and gelatinase B-containing granules) but not myeloperoxidase (a marker of azurophil granules) in the granule fraction, and release of lactoferrin (a marker of specific granules) in the extracellular medium. Furthermore, inhibition of Src tyrosine kinases, or phosphoinositide 3-kinase with PP1 or LY294002, respectively, blocked ß2 integrin-induced degranulation and the redistribution of Rap1 and Rap2 to a membrane-enriched fraction. Consequently, the ß2 integrin-dependent exocytosis of specific and gelatinase B-containing granules occurs via a Src tyrosine kinase/phosphoinositide 3-kinase signaling pathway and is responsible for the translocation of Rap1 and Rap2 to the plasma membrane in human neutrophils.

Erythropoietin-Induced Activation of the JAK2/STAT5, PI3K/Akt, and Ras/ERK Pathways Promotes Malignant Cell Behavior in a Modified Breast Cancer Cell Line

Abstract Erythropoietin (Epo), the major regulator of erythropoiesis, and its cognate receptor (EpoR) are also expressed in nonerythroid tissues, including tumors. Clinical studies have highlighted the potential adverse effects of erythropoiesis-stimulating agents when used to treat cancer-related anemia. We assessed the ability of EpoR to enhance tumor growth and invasiveness following Epo stimulation. A benign noninvasive rat mammary cell line, Rama 37, was used as a model system. Cell signaling and malignant cell behavior were compared between parental Rama 37 cells, which express few or no endogenous EpoRs, and a modified cell line stably transfected with human EpoR (Rama 37-28). The incubation of Rama 37-28 cells with pharmacologic levels of Epo led to the rapid and sustained increases in phosphorylation of signal transducers and activators of transcription 5, Akt, and extracellular signal-regulated kinase. The activation of these signaling pathways significantly increased invasion, migration, adhesion, and colony formation. The Epo-induced invasion capacity of Rama 37-28 cells was reduced by the small interfering RNA-mediated knockdown of EpoR mRNA levels and by inhibitors of the phosphoinositide 3-kinase/Akt and Ras/extracellular signal-regulated kinase signaling pathways with adhesion also reduced by Janus-activated kinase 2/signal transducers and activators of transcription 5 inhibition. These data show that Epo induces phenotypic changes in the behavior of breast cancer cell lines and establishes links between individual cell signaling pathways and the potential for cancer spread.