The burden of disease and injury in Australia

An overview of the results of the Australian Burden of Disease (ABD) study is presented. The ABD study was the first to use methodology developed for the Global Burden of Disease study to measure the burden of disease and injury in a developed country. In 1996, mental disorders were the main causes of disability burden, responsible for nearly 30% of total years of life lost to disability (YLD), with depression accounting for 8% of the total YLD. Ischaemic heart disease and stroke were the main contributors to the disease burden disability-adjusted life years (DALYs), together causing nearly 18% of the total disease burden. Risk factors such as smoking, alcohol consumption, physical inactivity, hypertension, high blood cholesterol, obesity and inadequate fruit and vegetable consumption were responsible for much of the overall disease burden in Australia. The lessons learnt from the ABD study are discussed, together with methodological issues that require further attention.

Cervical screening: population-based comparisons between self-reported survey and registry-derived Pap test rates

Objective: To compare self-reported cervical screening rates, as recorded in the 1998 NSW Health Survey, with registry-based cervical screening rates for NSW for the same period; and to examine factors associated with over-estimates of cervical screening rates by self-report. Methods: Self-reported cervical screening data was extracted from the 1998 NSW Health Survey, biennial screening rates estimated and compared with biennial cervical screening rates for 1997-98, as recorded on the NSW Pap Test Register (PTR). Rates and differences were related to socio-demographic characteristics of the 17 Area Health Services of NSW. Results: According to the 1998 NSW Health Survey, 74% of women reported having a Pap test during the previous two years. The equivalent rate recorded on the NSW PTR for 1997-98 was 62% (p

Ecology and behavior of first instar larval Lepidoptera

Neonate Lepidoptera are confronted with the daunting task of establishing themselves on a food plant. The factors relevant to this process need to be considered at spatial and temporal scales relevant to the larva and not the investigator. Neonates have to cope with an array of plant surface characters as well as internal characters once the integument is ruptured. These characters, as well as microclimatic conditions, vary within and between plant modules and interact with larval feeding requirements, strongly affecting movement behavior, which may be extensive even for such small organisms. In addition to these factors, there is an array of predators, pathogens, and parasitoids with which first instars must contend. Not surprisingly, mortality in neonates is high but can vary widely. Experimental and manipulative studies, as well as detailed observations of the animal, are vital if the subtle interaction of factors responsible for this high and variable mortality are to be understood. These studies are essential for an understanding of theories linking female oviposition behavior with larval survival, plant defense theory, and population dynamics, as well as modern crop resistance breeding programs.

Variation in cervical cancer screening by region, socio-economic, migrant and Indigenous status in women in New South Wales

The purpose of this study was to estimate the extent of association of cervical screening in NSW women with socio-economic status (SES), rurality, and proportions of non-English speaking background (NESB) and Indigenous status. Data on women who had at least one Pap test over two years (January 1998-December 1999) were obtained from the NSW Pap test Register. Each local government area (LGA) was allocated to categories of population proportions of NESB and Indigenous status, a rurality classification based on population density and remoteness, and to an SES quintile. The odds ratios (OR) of having a Pap test were estimated and confounding adjusted by multiple logistic regression analysis. Implied Pap test rates in urban NESB and in rural Indigenous women were estimated from the modelled estimates. The adjusted OR for a Pap test in large rural centres (1.14) was significantly higher than those for metropolitan or capital city residents (0.9 and 1.0 respectively). Adjusted OR for a Pap test in other rural centres (0.73) and other remote areas (0.64) were significantly lower than those for metropolitan or capital city residents. In urban populations the lowest OR were in areas with both low SES and high proportion of NESB. The lowest OR for Pap screening in rural populations occurred in the most remote areas with the highest proportion of Indigenous women. For urban NESB women the biennial Pap test rate was estimated as 50%, and for rural Indigenous women 29%, compared with the NSW average of 59%.

Large mitochondrial repeats multiplied during the polymerase chain reaction

The number of repeats in repetitive DNA like micro- and minisatellites is often determined by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). When we counted repeats in an array of mitochondrial repeats in the cattle tick (Boophilus microplus) we found that the number of repeats increased during PCR. Multiplication of the repeats was independent of the primers used to amplify the region, the PCR annealing temperature and the length of the PCR product. The use of PCR to determine the number of repeats in arrays needs to be reassessed. For long repeats, a subset of samples should always be analysed by Southern blot hybridization to confirm the PCR results.

Human response to environmental noise: The role of perceived control

Negative impacts of noise exposure on health and performance may result in part from learned helplessness, the syndrome of deficits typically produced by exposure to uncontrollable events. People may perceive environmental noise to be uncontrollable, and several effects of noise exposure appear to parallel learned helplessness deficits. In the present socioacoustic survey (N = 1,015), perceived control over aircraft noise correlated negatively with some effects of noise (though not others). Furthermore, these effects were better predicted by perceived control than by noise level. These observational data support the claim that learned helplessness contributes to the effects of noise exposure.

Homomeric ring assemblies of eukaryotic Sm proteins have affinity for both RNA and DNA - Crystal structure of an oligomeric complex of yeast SmF

Sm and Sm-like proteins are key components of small ribonucleoproteins involved in many RNA and DNA processing pathways. In eukaryotes, these complexes contain seven unique Sm or Sm-like (Lsm) proteins assembled as hetero-heptameric rings, whereas in Archaea and bacteria six or seven-membered rings are made from only a single polypeptide chain. Here we show that single Sm and Lsm proteins from yeast also have the capacity to assemble into homo-oligomeric rings. Formation of homo-oligomers by the spliceosomal small nuclear ribonucleoprotein components SmE and SmF preclude hetero-interactions vital to formation of functional small nuclear RNP complexes in vivo. To better understand these unusual complexes, we have determined the crystal structure of the homomeric assembly of the spliceosomal protein SmF. Like its archaeal/bacterial homologs, the SmF complex forms a homomeric ring but in an entirely novel arrangement whereby two heptameric rings form a co-axially stacked dimer via interactions mediated by the variable loops of the individual SmF protein chains. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the homomeric assemblies of yeast Sm and Lsm proteins are capable of binding not only to oligo(U) RNA but, in the case of SmF, also to oligo(dT) single-stranded DNA.

Phylogeny, evolution and historical zoogeography of ticks: a review of recent progress

There has been much progress in our understanding of the phylogeny and evolution of ticks, particularly hard ticks, in the past 5 years. Indeed, a consensus about the phylogeny of the hard ticks has emerged. Our current working hypothesis for the phylogeny of ticks is quite different to the working hypothesis of 5 years ago. So that the classification reflects our knowledge of ticks, several changes to the nomenclature of ticks are imminent. One subfamily, the Hyalomminae, will probably be sunk, yet another, the Bothriocrotoninae n. subfamily, will be created. Bothriocrotoninae n. subfamily, and Bothriocroton n. genus, are being created to house an early-diverging ('basal') lineage of endemic Australian ticks that used to be in the genus Aponomma (ticks of reptiles). There has been progress in our understanding of the subfamily Rhipicephalinae. The genus Rhipicephalus is almost certainly paraphyletic with respect to the genus Boophilus. Thus, the genus Boophilus will probably become a subgenus of Rhipicephalus. This change to the nomenclature, unlike other options, will keep the name Boophilus in common usage. Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus may still called B. microplus, and Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) annulatus may still be called B. annulatus, but the nomenclature will have been changed to reflect our knowledge of the phylogeny and evolution of these ticks. New insights into the historical zoogeography of ticks will also be presented.

Choking deaths: the role of antipsychotic medication

Background An increased risk of choking associated with antipsychotic medication has been repeatedly postulated. Aims To examine this association in a large number of cases of choking deaths. Method Cases of individuals who had died because of choking were linked with a case register recording contacts with public mental health services. The actual and expected rates of psychiatric disorder and the presence of psychotropic medication in post-mortem blood samples were compared. Results The 70 people who had choked to death were over 20 times more likely to have been treated previously for schizophrenia. They were also more likely to have had a prior organic psychiatric syndrome. The risk for those receiving thioridazine or lithium was. respectively, 92 times and 30 times greater than expected. Other antipsychotic and psychotropic drugs were not over-represented. Conclusions The increased risk of death in people with schizophrenia may be a combination of inherent predispositions and the use of specific antipsychotic drugs. The increased risk of choking in those with organic psychiatric syndromes is consistent with the consequences of compromised neurological competence. Declaration of interest None.

Functional and Evolutionary Insights from the Genomes of Three Parasitoid Nasonia Species

We report here genome sequences and comparative analyses of three closely related parasitoid wasps: Nasonia vitripennis, N. giraulti, and N. longicornis. Parasitoids are important regulators of arthropod populations, including major agricultural pests and disease vectors, and Nasonia is an emerging genetic model, particularly for evolutionary and developmental genetics. Key findings include the identification of a functional DNA methylation tool kit; hymenopteran-specific genes including diverse venoms; lateral gene transfers among Pox viruses, Wolbachia, and Nasonia; and the rapid evolution of genes involved in nuclear-mitochondrial interactions that are implicated in speciation. Newly developed genome resources advance Nasonia for genetic research, accelerate mapping and cloning of quantitative trait loci, and will ultimately provide tools and knowledge for further increasing the utility of parasitoids as pest insect-control agents.

The higher-level phylogeny of Archosauria (Tetrapoda: Diapsida)

Crown group Archosauria, which includes birds, dinosaurs, crocodylomorphs, and several extinct Mesozoic groups, is a primary division of the vertebrate tree of life. However, the higher-level phylogenetic relationships within Archosauria are poorly resolved and controversial, despite years of study. The phylogeny of crocodile-line archosaurs (Crurotarsi) is particularly contentious, and has been plagued by problematic taxon and character sampling. Recent discoveries and renewed focus on archosaur anatomy enable the compilation of a new dataset, which assimilates and standardizes character data pertinent to higher-level archosaur phylogeny, and is scored across the largest group of taxa yet analysed. This dataset includes 47 new characters (25% of total) and eight taxa that have yet to be included in an analysis, and total taxonomic sampling is more than twice that of any previous study. This analysis produces a well-resolved phylogeny, which recovers mostly traditional relationships within Avemetatarsalia, places Phytosauria as a basal crurotarsan clade, finds a close relationship between Aetosauria and Crocodylomorpha, and recovers a monophyletic Rauisuchia comprised of two major subclades. Support values are low, suggesting rampant homoplasy and missing data within Archosauria, but the phylogeny is highly congruent with stratigraphy. Comparison with alternative analyses identifies numerous scoring differences, but indicates that character sampling is the main source of incongruence. The phylogeny implies major missing lineages in the Early Triassic and may support a Carnian-Norian extinction event.