Mortality variation across Australia: descriptive data for States and Territories, and statistical divisions

OBJECTIVE: To describe variation in all cause and selected cause-specific mortality rates across Australia. METHODS: Mortality and population data for 1997 were obtained from the Australian Bureau of Statistics. All cause and selected cause-specific mortality rates were calculated and directly standardised to the 1997 Australian population in 5-year age groups. Selected major causes of death included cancer, coronary artery disease, cerebrovascular disease, diabetes, accidents and suicide. Rates are reported by statistical division, and State and Territory. RESULTS: All cause age-standardised mortality was 6.98 per 1000 in 1997 and this varied 2-fold from a low in the statistical division of Pilbara, Western Australia (5.78, 95% confidence interval 5.06-6.56), to a high in Northern Territory-excluding Darwin (11.30, 10.67-11.98). Similar mortality variation (all p<0.0001) exists for cancer (1.01-2.23 per 1000) and coronary artery disease (0.99-2.23 per 1000), the two biggest killers. Larger variation (all p<0.0001) exists for cerebrovascular disease (0.7-11.8 per 10,000), diabetes (0.7-6.9 per 10,000), accidents (1.7-7.2 per 10,000) and suicide (0.6-3.8 per 10,000). Less marked variation was observed when analysed by State and Territory. but Northern Territory consistently has the highest age-standardised mortality rates. CONCLUSIONS: Analysed by statistical division, substantial mortality gradients exist across Australia, suggesting an inequitable distribution of the determinants of health. Further research is required to better understand this heterogeneity.

Extensive chromosomal variation associated with taxon divergence and host specificity in the gall-inducing scale insect Apiomorpha munita (Schrader) (Hemiptera : Sternorrhyncha : Coccoidea : Eriococcidae)

Apiomorpha Rubsaamen (Hemiptera: Coccoidea: Eriococcidae) is one of the most chromosomally diverse of all animal genera. There is extensive karyotypic variation within many of the morphologically defined species, including A. munita (Schrader) which is here reported to have diploid chromosome counts ranging from 6 to more than 100. Each of the three morphologically defined subspecies of A. munita also displays considerable chromosomal variation: A. m. tereticornuta Gullan (2n =6, 8, 20, 22 or 24), A. m. malleensis Gullan (2n =6, 20, 22, 24 or 26), and A. m. munita (Schrader) (2n=54 or >100). Apiomorpha munita appears to occur only on eucalypts of the informal subgenus Symphyomyrtus, with each of the subspecies of A. munita restricted to discrete symphyomyrt sections. Several different karyotypic forms within each subspecies of A. munita appear to be restricted to only one or a few eucalypt species or series. The association between apparent host specificity and chromosomal rearrangements in A. munita suggests that both may be playing an active role in taxon divergence in Apiomorpha. (C) 2001 The Linnean Society of London.

Variation in mortality rates in Australia: correlation with Indigenous status, remoteness and socio-economic deprivation

Background The aim of this study was to study ecological correlations between age-adjusted all-cause mortality rates in Australian statistical divisions and (1) the proportion of residents that self-identify as Indigenous, (2) remoteness, and (3) socio-economic deprivation. Methods All-cause mortality rates for 57 statistical divisions were calculated and directly standardized to the 1997 Australian population in 5-year age groups using Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) data. The proportion of residents who self-identified as Indigenous was obtained from the 1996 Census. Remoteness was measured using ARIA (Accessibility and Remoteness Index for Australia) values. Socioeconomic deprivation was measured using SEIFA (Socio-Economic index for Australia) values from the ABS. Results Age-standardized all-cause mortality varies twofold from 5.7 to 11.3 per 1000 across Australian statistical divisions. Strongest correlation was between Indigenous status and mortality (r = 0.69, p < 0.001). correlation between remoteness and mortality was modest (r = 0.39, p = 0.002) as was correlation between socio-economic deprivation and mortality (r = -0.42, p = 0.001). Excluding the three divisions with the highest mortality, a multiple regression model using the logarithm of the adjusted mortality rate as the dependent variable showed that the partial correlation (and hence proportion of the variance explained) for Indigenous status was 0.03 (9 per cent; p = 0.03), for SEIFA score was -0.17 (3 per cent; p = 0.22); and for remoteness was -0.22 (5 per cent; p = 0.13). Collectively, the three variables studied explain 13 per cent of the variability in mortality. Conclusions Ecological correlation exists between all-cause mortality, Indigenous status, remoteness and disadvantage across Australia. The strongest correlation is with indigenous status, and correlation with all three characteristics is weak when the three statistical divisions with the highest mortality rates are excluded. intervention targeted at these three statistical divisions could reduce much of the variability in mortality in Australia.

Variation in cervical cancer screening by region, socio-economic, migrant and Indigenous status in women in New South Wales

The purpose of this study was to estimate the extent of association of cervical screening in NSW women with socio-economic status (SES), rurality, and proportions of non-English speaking background (NESB) and Indigenous status. Data on women who had at least one Pap test over two years (January 1998-December 1999) were obtained from the NSW Pap test Register. Each local government area (LGA) was allocated to categories of population proportions of NESB and Indigenous status, a rurality classification based on population density and remoteness, and to an SES quintile. The odds ratios (OR) of having a Pap test were estimated and confounding adjusted by multiple logistic regression analysis. Implied Pap test rates in urban NESB and in rural Indigenous women were estimated from the modelled estimates. The adjusted OR for a Pap test in large rural centres (1.14) was significantly higher than those for metropolitan or capital city residents (0.9 and 1.0 respectively). Adjusted OR for a Pap test in other rural centres (0.73) and other remote areas (0.64) were significantly lower than those for metropolitan or capital city residents. In urban populations the lowest OR were in areas with both low SES and high proportion of NESB. The lowest OR for Pap screening in rural populations occurred in the most remote areas with the highest proportion of Indigenous women. For urban NESB women the biennial Pap test rate was estimated as 50%, and for rural Indigenous women 29%, compared with the NSW average of 59%.

Intragenomic variation in ITS2 rDNA in the louse of humans, Pediculus humanus: ITS2 is not a suitable marker for population studies in this species

The two internal transcribed spacers (ITS) of ribosomal DNA are often used as markers of populations of insects. We studied the ITS2 of the head lice and body lice of humans, to determine whether this gene is a suitable marker of populations of these insects. ITS2 sequences were amplified by PCR from lice from four different countries: Australia, China, Japan and the USA. Direct cycle-sequencing of some of these PCR products gave equivocal nucleotide chromatograms. This indicated that some lice had more than one ITS2 sequence, so we cloned PCR products from these lice. Temperature gradient gel electrophoresis (TGGE) revealed that 50 of the 67 clones we screened had different nucleotide sequences. All lice had several ITS2 types, including those with unequivocal chromatograms. A phylogenetic tree of 15 different ITS2 sequences showed that the sequences from individual lice were not monophyletic. We conclude that the ITS2 is not a useful marker of populations for Pediculus humanus.

Variation in the dispersal potential of non-feeding invertebrate larvae: the desperate larva hypothesis and larval size

For many species of marine invertebrates, variability in larval settlement behaviour appears to be the rule rather than the exception. This variability has the potential to affect larval dispersal, because settlement behaviour will influence the length of time larvae are in the plankton. Despite the ubiquity and importance of this variability, relatively few sources of variation in larval settlement behaviour have been identified. One important factor that can affect larval settlement behaviour is the nutritional state of larvae. Non-feeding larvae often become less discriminating in their 'choice' of settlement substrate, i.e. more desperate to settle, when energetic reserves run low. We tested whether variation in larval size (and presumably in nutritional reserves) also affects the settlement behaviour of 3 species of colonial marine invertebrate larvae, the bryozoans Bugula neritina and Watersipora subtorquata and the ascidian Diplosoma listerianum. For all 3 species, larger larvae delayed settlement for longer in the absence of settlement cues, and settlement of Bugula neritina larvae was accelerated by the presence of settlement cues, independently of larval size. In the field, larger W subtorquata larvae also took longer to settle than smaller larvae and were more discriminating towards settlement surfaces. These differences in settlement time are likely to result in differences in the distance that larvae disperse in the field. We suggest that species that produce non-feeding larvae can affect the dispersal potential of their offspring by manipulating larval size and thus larval desperation.

Spatial and temporal variation in distribution of mangroves in Moreton Bay, subtropical Australia: a comparison of pattern metrics and change detection analyses based on aerial photographs

An assessment of the changes in the distribution and extent of mangroves within Moreton Bay, southeast Queensland, Australia, was carried out. Two assessment methods were evaluated: spatial and temporal pattern metrics analysis, and change detection analysis. Currently, about 15,000 ha of mangroves are present in Moreton Bay. These mangroves are important ecosystems, but are subject to disturbance from a number of sources. Over the past 25 years, there has been a loss of more than 3800 ha, as a result of natural losses and mangrove clearing (e.g. for urban and industrial development, agriculture and aquaculture). However, areas of new mangroves have become established over the same time period, offsetting these losses to create a net loss of about 200 ha. These new mangroves have mainly appeared in the southern bay region and the bay islands, particularly on the landward edge of existing mangroves. In addition, spatial patterns and species composition of mangrove patches have changed. The pattern metrics analysis provided an overview of mangrove distribution and change in the form of single metric values, while the change detection analysis gave a more detailed and spatially explicit description of change. An analysis of the effects of spatial scales on the pattern metrics indicated that they were relatively insensitive to scale at spatial resolutions less than 50 m, but that most metrics became sensitive at coarser resolutions, a finding which has implications for mapping of mangroves based on remotely sensed data. (C) 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Sources of variation in larval quality for free-spawning marine invertebrates: Egg size and the local sperm environment

There has been growing interest in the effects of variation in larval quality on the post-larval performance of adult marine invertebrates. Variation in egg/larval size is an obvious source of variation in larval quality but sources of variation have received little attention. For broadcast spawners, larval size may vary according to the local sperm environment but the generality of this result is unclear. Here, we show that, for a solitary ascidian, a polychaete and an echinoid, larval size is affected by the concentration of sperm present during fertilization. Larvae that are produced at high sperm concentrations are smaller than larvae that are produced from eggs exposed to low sperm concentrations. We also show that for three ascidians and an asteroid, egg size increases with maternal body size. These differences in larval size are likely to affect larval and subsequent adult performance in the field. Given that sperm concentrations in the field can fluctuate widely, it is likely that larval quality in free-spawning marine invertebrates will also vary widely.

Late Quaternary Milankovitch-scale climatic change and variability and its impact on monsoonal Australasia

Four pollen and charcoal records derived from marine cores around the northern perimeter of Australia are examined to provide a regional picture of patterns, causes and impacts of climate change over the last 100-300 ka. The availability of radiocarbon dates and oxygen isotope records for the cores provides primary chronological control. Spectral analysis of components of these records demonstrates an overall importance of Milankovitch frequencies with clear glacial-interglacial cyclicity dominated by variation in precipitation. In addition, a number of pollen taxa, as well as charcoal particles, exhibit a 30 ka frequency that is considered, from its relationship with biomass burning and with results of past modelling, to reflect changes in the intensity of El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) variability. Pollen components of all records show a decline, frequently stepwise, in more fire-sensitive vegetation and its replacement with more fire-tolerant vegetation. There is some evidence that this trend is linked to an onset or general increase in ENSO activity and perhaps also to variation in monsoon activity dating from about 300 ka BP that was caused by changes to oceanic circulation within the Indonesian region. The trend may have accelerated within the last 45 ka due to burning by indigenous people. (C) 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Patterns of variation within self-incompatibility loci

Diverse self-incompatibility (SI) mechanisms permit flowering plants to inhibit fertilization by pollen that express specificities in common with the pistil. Characteristic of at least two model systems is greatly reduced recombination across large genomic tracts surrounding the S-locus, which regulates SI. In three angiosperm families, including the Solanaceae, the gene that controls the expression of gametophytic SI in the pistil encodes a ribonuclease (S-RNase). The gene that controls pollen SI expression is currently unknown, although several candidates have recently been proposed. Although each candidate shows a high level of polymorphism and complete allelic disequilibrium with the S-RNase gene, such properties may merely reflect tight linkage to the S-locus, irrespective of any functional role in SI. We analyzed the magnitude and nature of nucleotide variation, with the objective of distinguishing likely candidates for regulators of SI from other genes embedded in the S-locus region. We studied the S-RNase gene of the Solanaceae and 48A, a candidate for the pollen gene in this system, and we also conducted a parallel analysis of the regulators of sporophytic SI in Brassica, a system in which both the pistil and pollen genes are known. Although the pattern of variation shown by the pollen gene of the Brassica system is consistent with its role as a determinant of pollen specificity, that of 48A departs from expectation. Our analysis further suggests that recombination between 48A and S-RNase may have occurred during the interval spanned by the gene genealogy, another indication that 48A may not regulate SI expression in pollen.

The secondary vascular system of Actinopterygii: interspecific variation in origins and investment

Vascular casts of 3 species of Chondrichthyes, 1 of Dipnoi, 1 of Chondrostei and 14 species of the Teleostei were examined by light and scanning electron microscopy in order to give a qualitative and quantitative analysis of interarterial anastomoses (iaas) that indicate the presence (or absence) of a secondary vascular system (SVS). Anastomoses were found to originate from a variety of different primary blood vessels, many of which have not been previously identified as giving rise to secondary vessels. Segmental arteries derived from the dorsal aorta and supplying body musculature were major sites of origin of the SVS, although there was considerable variation in where, in the hierarchy of arterial branching, the anastomoses occurred. The degree of investment in a SVS was species specific, with more active species having a higher degree of secondary vascularisation. This difference was quantified using an absolute count of iaas between Anguilla reinhardtii and Trachinotus baillonii. A range of general features of the SVS is also described. No evidence of iaas was found on the coeliac, mesenteric or renal circulation in any species. Evidence of iaas was lacking in the dipnoan and chondrichthyan species examined, suggesting that a SVS is restricted to Actinopterygii. The presence and distribution of a SVS does not appear to be exclusively linked to phylogenetic position, but rather to the physiological adaptation of the species.

Incorporating demand-side aspects into regional policy: variations in the importance of private investment decision factors across regions

Most regional programs focus on the supply side of regions, emphasizing the attraction conditions offered, such as infrastructure, labor skills, tax incentives, etc. This study analyzes one aspect of the demand side, that is, how investment decisions of private firms are made by asking the question: ""Do corporations decide the same way on investments in different parts of the territory?"" The paper analyzes the investments of 373 large Brazilian firms during 1996-2004. Based on the investment decisions of these firms, the role of sales, cash-flow, external financing, and working capital is investigated through regression analysis. The regional influence is captured by explanatory variables representing regional and firm characteristics, and by interaction dummies between the region and the main investment determinants. The results indicate significant differences across regions in the importance of investment determinants. This information is important for regional development policy, because different mechanisms should be used in different regions to foster private investments.

Transport-Regional Equity Issue Revisited

Almeida E. S. de, Haddad E. A. and Hewings G. J. D. Transport-regional equity issue revisited, Regional Studies. The objective of this paper is to analyse the relationship between transport and regional equity in Minas Gerais, Brazil. Furthermore, the existence of a trade-off between economic performance and regional equity is investigated as well. To do so, the paper develops a spatial computable general equilibrium model based on Brocker and Schneider`s approach of 2002 to implement comparative static analysis, explicitly incorporating iceberg transportation costs. Four activities are modelled, namely production, final demand, transportation and exports. Two production factors are assumed: labour and other factors. The model has 12 domestic regions and three external regions. Four counterfactual experiments are developed based on decreases in transportation costs due to a `distance shortening`. The main findings indicate that if the transport infrastructure improvement is focused only among poor regions, the promotion of regional equity is insignificant. If the transport infrastructure improvement links are concentrated among rich regions, there is an increase in regional income inequalities. However, if the improvements are targeted to the roads linking poor regions and rich ones, there is greater promotion of regional equity. The same result will occur when improvements are made to all road links of the state. [image omitted] Almeida E. S. de, Haddad E. A. et Hewings G. J. D. La question du rapport entre le transport et l`equilibre regional vue sous un jour nouveau, Regional Studies. Cet article cherche a analyser le rapport entre le transport et l`equilibre regional en Minas Gerais au Bresil. En outre, on examine la presence d`un echange entre la performance economoique et l`equilibre regional. Pour le faire, on construit un modele geographique de l`equilibre general a utiliser sur ordinateur fonde sur l`approche de Brockner et Schneider en 2002 afin de mettre en oeuvre une analyse statique comparative qui comprend explicitement les frais de transport iceberg. On modelise quatre activites, a savoir, la production, la demande finale, le transport et l`exportation. On fait deux suppositions quant aux facteurs de production: la main-d`oevre et d`autres facteurs. Le modele embrasse douze regions internes et trois regions externes. On fait quatre experiences paradoxales fondees sur la baisse des frais de transport due a une `reduction des distances`. Les principaux resultats indiquent que si l`amelioration de l`equipement de transport ne porte que sur les regions defavorisees, la promotion de l`equilibre regional s`avere negligeable. Si l`amelioration de l`equipement de transport focalise les regions riches, il s`avere un creusement des ecarts des revenus regionaux. Cependant, si les ameliorations ciblent les routes qui relient les regions defavorisees aux regions riches, il s`avere une plus grande promotion de l`equilibre regional. Il en va de meme pour la situation ou on a apporte des amenagements a toutes les liaisons routieres de l`etat. Modele geographique de l`equilibre general a utiliser sur ordinateur Equilibre regional Peformance economique Frais de transport Almeida E. S. de, Haddad E. A. und Hewings G. J. D. Die Wiederaufnahme der Frage von Verkehrswesen im Verhaltnis zu regionaler Fairness, Regional Studies. Dieser Aufsatz beabsichtigt, die Beziehung zwischen Verkehrswesen und regionaler Fairness in Minas Gerais (Brasilien) zu analysieren und zugleich auch das Vorkommen von Einbussen entweder bei wirtschaftlicher Leistung der regionaler Fairness zu untersuchen. Zu diesem Zwecke wird ein auf dem Ansatz von Brocker und Schneider (2002) aufbauendes raumliches komputables allgemeines Gleichgewichtsmodell entwickelt, um vergleichende statistische Analysen durchzufuhren, wobei verborgene `Eisberg`-Transportkosten ausdrucklich berucksichtigt werden. Es werden vier Unternehmenstatigk eiten aufgefuhrt: Herstellung, Nachfrage, Transportwesen und Exporte, und zwei Produktionsfaktoren vorausgesetzt: Arbeitskrafte und andere Faktoren. Das Modell umfasst zwolf Inlandsregionen und drei externe Regionen. Es werden vier gegensatzliche Experimente entwickelt, die auf einer Abnahme der Transportkosten infolge einer `Verkurzung der Entfernungen` beruhen. Die Hauptbefunde weisen darauf hin, dass die Forderung regionaler Fairness unbedeutend bleibt, wenn die Verbesserungen der Transportinfrastruktur sich nur auf minderbemittelte Regionen konzentrieren; werden die Verbesserungen der Verbindungen der Transportinfrastruktur in wohlhabenden Regionen durchgefuhrt, so nehmen regionale Einkommensunterschiede zu. Wenn die Verbesserungen jedoch auf Strassen abzielen, die wohlhabende Regionen mit weniger bemittelten verbinden, wird regionale Fairness starker gefordert. Das gleiche Ergebnis wird sich einstellen, wenn Verbesserungen an allen Strassenverbindungen des Staates vorgenommen werden. Raumliches, komputables, allgemeines Gleichgewichtsmodell Regionale Fairness Wirtschaftsleistung Transportkosten Almeida E. S. de, Haddad E. A. y Hewings G. J. D. Revisando el tema de la igualdad del transporte en las regiones, Regional Studies. El objetivo de este documento es analizar la relacion entre el transporte y la igualdad regional en Minas Gerais, Brasil. Asimismo investigamos la existencia de una compensacion entre el rendimiento economico y la igualdad regional. Para ello desarrollamos un modelo de equilibrio general computable y espacial basado en el enfoque de Brocker y Schneider en 2002 para hacer un analisis estatico y comparativo, explicitamente incorporando los costes ocultos de transporte. Se modelan cuatro actividades: la produccion, la demanda final, el transporte y las exportaciones. Suponemos que existen dos factores de produccion: mano de obra y otros factores. En este modelo, existen doce regiones internas y tres regiones externas. Desarrollamos cuatro experimentos contrafactuales basados en la disminucion de los costes de transporte debido a una `acortamiento de las distancias`. Los principales resultados indican que si la mejora de la infraestructura del transporte se centra solo entre las regiones mas pobres, el fomento de la igualdad regional es insignificante. Si los enlaces de la mejora de la infraestructura del transporte se concentran en las regiones ricas, aumentan las desigualdades de ingresos regionales. Sin embargo, si se mejoran los enlaces de carreteras entre las regiones pobres y ricas, se fomenta mejor la igualdad regional. El mismo resultado ocurre cuando se mejoran los enlaces de todas las carreteras del estado. Modelo de equilibrio general computable y espacial Igualdad regional Rendimiento economico Costes de transporte.