Regulation of SRC-3 localization and dynamics by phosphorylation during ERα-dependent transcriptional activation

Transcription is controlled by promoter-selective transcriptional factors (TFs), which bind to cis-regulatory enhancers elements, termed hormone response elements (HREs), in a specific subset of genes. Regulation by these factors involves either the recruitment of coactivators or corepressors and direct interaction with the basal transcriptional machinery (1). Hormone-activated nuclear receptors (NRs) are well characterized transcriptional factors (2) that bind to the promoters of their target genes and recruit primary and secondary coactivator proteins which possess many enzymatic activities required for gene expression (1,3,4). In the present study, using single-cell high-resolution fluorescent microscopy and high throughput microscopy (HTM) coupled to computational imaging analysis, we investigated transcriptional regulation controlled by the estrogen receptor alpha (ERalpha), in terms of large scale chromatin remodeling and interaction with the associated coactivator SRC-3 (Steroid Receptor Coactivator-3), a member of p160 family (28) primary coactivators. ERalpha is a steroid-dependent transcriptional factor (16) that belongs to the NRs superfamily (2,3) and, in response to the hormone 17-ß estradiol (E2), regulates transcription of distinct target genes involved in development, puberty, and homeostasis (8,16). ERalpha spends most of its lifetime in the nucleus and undergoes a rapid (within minutes) intranuclear redistribution following the addition of either agonist or antagonist (17,18,19). We designed a HeLa cell line (PRL-HeLa), engineered with a chromosomeintegrated reporter gene array (PRL-array) containing multicopy hormone response-binding elements for ERalpha that are derived from the physiological enhancer/promoter region of the prolactin gene. Following GFP-ER transfection of PRL-HeLa cells, we were able to observe in situ ligand dependent (i) recruitment to the array of the receptor and associated coregulators, (ii) chromatin remodeling, and (iii) direct transcriptional readout of the reporter gene. Addition of E2 causes a visible opening (decondensation) of the PRL-array, colocalization of RNA Polymerase II, and transcriptional readout of the reporter gene, detected by mRNA FISH. On the contrary, when cells were treated with an ERalpha antagonist (Tamoxifen or ICI), a dramatic condensation of the PRL-array was observed, displacement of RNA Polymerase II, and complete decreasing in the transcriptional FISH signal. All p160 family coactivators (28) colocalize with ERalpha at the PRL-array. Steroid Receptor Coactivator-3 (SRC-3/AIB1/ACTR/pCIP/RAC3/TRAM1) is a p160 family member and a known oncogenic protein (4,34). SRC-3 is regulated by a variety of posttranslational modifications, including methylation, phosphorylation, acetylation, ubiquitination and sumoylation (4,35). These events have been shown to be important for its interaction with other coactivator proteins and NRs and for its oncogenic potential (37,39). A number of extracellular signaling molecules, like steroid hormones, growth factors and cytokines, induce SRC-3 phosphorylation (40). These actions are mediated by a wide range of kinases, including extracellular-regulated kinase 1 and 2 (ERK1-2), c-Jun N-terminal kinase, p38 MAPK, and IkB kinases (IKKs) (41,42,43). Here, we report SRC-3 to be a nucleocytoplasmic shuttling protein, whose cellular localization is regulated by phosphorylation and interaction with ERalpha. Using a combination of high throughput and fluorescence microscopy, we show that both chemical inhibition (with U0126) and siRNA downregulation of the MAP/ERK1/2 kinase (MEK1/2) pathway induce a cytoplasmic shift in SRC-3 localization, whereas stimulation by EGF signaling enhances its nuclear localization by inducing phosphorylation at T24, S857, and S860, known partecipants in the regulation of SRC-3 activity (39). Accordingly, the cytoplasmic localization of a non-phosphorylatable SRC-3 mutant further supports these results. In the presence of ERalpha, U0126 also dramatically reduces: hormone-dependent colocalization of ERalpha and SRC-3 in the nucleus; formation of ER-SRC-3 coimmunoprecipitation complex in cell lysates; localization of SRC-3 at the ER-targeted prolactin promoter array (PRL-array) and transcriptional activity. Finally, we show that SRC-3 can also function as a cotransporter, facilitating the nuclear-cytoplasmic shuttling of estrogen receptor. While a wealth of studies have revealed the molecular functions of NRs and coregulators, there is a paucity of data on how these functions are spatiotemporally organized in the cellular context. Technically and conceptually, our findings have a new impact upon evaluating gene transcriptional control and mechanisms of action of gene regulators.

I sarcofagi tra III e IV secolo d. C.: problemi di iconologia

Cosa e’ stato fatto e il fine della ricerca in questi tre anni si è esaminato il materiale edito sui sarcofagi del periodo in esame, sui culti funerari, i problemi religiosi ed artistici. Per trovare confronti validi si sono resi necessari alcuni viaggi sia in Italia che all’estero. Lo scopo della ricerca è stato quello di “leggere” i messaggi insiti nelle figurazioni delle casse dei sarcofagi, per comprendere meglio la scelta dei committenti verso determinati temi e la ricezione di questi ultimi da parte del pubblico. La tomba, infatti, è l’ultima traccia che l’uomo lascia di sé ed è quindi importante cercare di determinare l’impatto psicologico del monumento funerario sul proprietario, che spesso lo acquistava quando ancora era in vita, e sui familiari in visita alla tomba durante la celebrazione dei riti per i defunti. Nell’ultimo anno, infine, si è provveduto a scrivere la tesi suddivindendo i capitoli e i pezzi in base all’argomento delle figurazioni (mitologici, di virtù, etc.). I capitoli introduttivi Nel primo capitolo di introduzione si è cercato di dare un affresco per sommi capi del periodo storico in esame da Caracalla a Teodosio e della Chiesa di III e IV secolo, mettendo in luce la profonda crisi che gravava sull’Impero e le varie correnti che frammentavano il cristianesimo. In particolare alcune dispute, come quella riguardante i lapsi, sarà alla base di ipotesi interpretative riguardanti la raffigurazione del rifiuto dei tre giovani Ebrei davanti a Nabuchodonosor. Nel capitolo seguente vengono esaminati i riti funerari e il ruolo dei sarcofagi in tali contesti, evidenziando le diverse situazioni emotive degli osservatori dei pezzi e, quindi, l’importanza dei temi trattati nelle casse. I capitolo Questo capitolo tratta dei sarcofagi mitologici. Dopo una breve introduzione, dove viene spiegata l’entrata in uso dei pezzi in questione, si passa alla discussione dei temi, suddivisi in paragrafi. La prima classe di materiali è qualla con la “caduta di Fetonte” la cui interpretazione sembra chiara: una tragedia familiare. Il compianto sul corpo di un ragazzo morto anzi tempo, al quale partecipa tutto il cosmo. L’afflizione dei familiari è immane e sembra priva di una possibile consolazione. L’unico richiamo a riprendere a vivere è solo quello del dovere (Mercurio che richiama Helios ai propri impegni). La seconda classe è data dalle scene di rapimento divino visto come consolazione e speranza in un aldilà felice, come quelle di Proserpina e Ila. Nella trasposizione della storia di Ila è interessante anche notare il fatto che le ninfe rapitrici del giovane – defunto abbiano le sembianze delle parenti già morte e di un fanciullo, probabilmente la madre, la nonna e un fratello deceduto anzi tempo. La terza classe presenta il tema del distacco e dell’esaltazione delle virtù del defunto nelle vesti dei cacciatori mitici Mealeagro, Ippolito e Adone tutti giovani, forti e coraggiosi. In questi sarcofagi ancor più che negli altri il motivo della giovinezza negata a causa della morte è fondamentale per sottolineare ancora di più la disperazione e il dolore dei genitori rimasti in vita. Nella seguente categoria le virtù del defunto sono ancora il tema dominante, ma in chiave diversa: in questo caso l’eroe è Ercole, intento ad affrontare le sue fatiche. L’interpretazione è la virtù del defunto che lo ha portato a vincere tutte le difficoltà incontrate durante la propria vita, come dimostrerebbe anche l’immagine del semidio rappresentato in età diverse da un’impresa all’altra. Vi è poi la categoria del sonno e della morte, con i miti di Endimione, Arianna e Rea Silvia, analizzato anche sotto un punto di vista psicologico di aiuto per il superamento del dolore per la perdita di un figlio, un marito, o, ancora, della sposa. Accanto ai sarcofagi con immagini di carattere narrativo, vi sono numerosi rilievi con personaggi mitici, che non raccontano una storia, ma si limitano a descrivere situazioni e stati d’animo di felicità. Tali figurazioni si possono dividere in due grandi gruppi: quelle con cortei marini e quelle con il tiaso dionisiaco, facendo dell’amore il tema specifico dei rilievi. Il fatto che quello del tiaso marino abbia avuto così tanta fortuna, forse, per la numerosa letteratura che metteva in relazione l’Aldilà con l’acqua: l’Isola dei Beati oltre l’Oceano, viaggi per mare verso il mondo dei morti. Certo in questo tipo di sarcofagi non vi sono esplicitate queste credenze, ma sembrano più che altro esaltare le gioie della vita. Forse il tutto può essere spiegato con la coesistenza, nei familiari del defunto, della memoria retrospettiva e della proiezione fiduciosa nel futuro. Sostanzialmente era un modo per evocare situazioni gioiose e di godimento sensibile, riferendole ai morti in chiave beneaugurale. Per quanto rigurda il tiaso di Bacco, la sua fortuna è stata dettata dal fatto che il suo culto è sempre stato molto attivo. Bacco era dio della festa, dell’estasi, del vino, era il grande liberatore, partecipe della crescita e della fioritura, il grande forestiero , che faceva saltare gli ordinamenti prestabiliti, i confini della città con la campagna e le convenzioni sociali. Era il dio della follia, al quale le menadi si abbandonavano nella danza rituale, che aggrediva le belve, amante della natura, ma che penetra nella città, sconvolgendola. Del suo seguito facevano parte esseri ibridi, a metà tra l’ordine e la bestialità e animali feroci ammansiti dal vino. I suoi nemici hanno avuto destini orribili di indicibile crudeltà, ma chi si è affidato anima e corpo a lui ha avuto gioia, voluttà, allegria e pienezza di vita. Pur essendo un valente combattente, ha caratteri languidi e a tratti femminei, con forme floride e capelli lunghi, ebbro e inebriante. Col passare del tempo la conquista indiana di alessandro si intrecciò al mito bacchico e, a lungo andare, tutti i caratteri oscuri e minacciosi della divinità scomparirono del tutto. Un esame sistematico dei temi iconografici riconducibili al mito di Bacco non è per nulla facile, in quanto l’oggetto principale delle raffigurazioni è per lo più il tiaso o come corteo festoso, o come gruppi di figure danzanti e musicanti, o, ancora, intento nella vendemmia. Ciò che interessava agli scultori era l’atmosfera gioiosa del tiaso, al punto che anche un episodio importante, come abbiamo visto, del ritrovamento di Arianna si pèerde completamente dentro al corteo, affollatissimo di personaggi. Questo perché, come si è detto anche al riguardo dei corte marini, per creare immagini il più possibile fitte e gravide di possibilità associative. Altro contesto iconografico dionisiaco è quello degli amori con Arianna. Sui sarcofagi l’amore della coppia divina è raffigurato come una forma di stupore e rapimento alla vista dell’altro, un amore fatto di sguardi, come quello del marito sulla tomba della consorte. Un altro tema , che esalta l’amore, è senza ombra di dubbio quello di Achille e Pentesilea, allegoria dell’amore coniugale. Altra classe è qualla con il mito di Enomao, che celebra il coraggio virile e l’attitudine alla vittoria del defunto e, se è presente la scena di matrimonio con Ippodamia, l’amore verso la sposa. Infine vi sono i sarcofagi delle Muse: esaltazione della cultura e della saggezza del morto. II capitolo Accanto ad i grandi ambiti mitologici dei due tiasi del capitolo precedente era la natura a lanciare un messaggio di vita prospera e pacifica. Gli aspetti iconografici diq uesto tema sono due: le stagioni e la vita in un ambiente bucolico. Nonostante la varietà iconografica del soggetto, l’idea di fondo rimane invariata: le stagioni portano ai morti i loro doni affinchè possano goderne tutto l’anno per l’eternità. Per quanto riguarda le immagini bucoliche sono ispirate alla vita dei pastori di ovini, ma ovviamente non a quella reale: i committenti di tali sarcofagi non avevano mai vissuto con i pastori, né pensavano di farlo i loro parenti. Le immagini realistiche di contadini, pastori, pescatori, tutte figure di infimo livello sociale, avevano assunto tratti idilliaci sotto l’influsso della poesia ellenistica. Tutte queste visioni di felicità mancano di riferimenti concreti sia temporali che geografici. Qui non vi sono protagonisti e situazioni dialogiche con l’osservatore esterno, attraverso la ritrattistica. I defunti se appaiono sono all’interno di un tondo al centro della cassa. Nei contesti bucolici, che andranno via, via, prendendo sempre più piede nel III secolo, come in quelli filosofici, spariscono del tutto le scene di lutto e di cordoglio. Le immagini dovevano essere un invito a godersi la vita, ma dovevano anche dire qualcosa del defunto. In una visione retrospettiva, forse, si potrebbero intendere come una dichiarazione che il morto, in vita, non si era fatto mancare nulla. Nel caso opposto, poteve invece essere un augurio ad un’esistenza felice nell’aldilà. III capitolo Qui vengono trattati i sarcofagi con l’esaltazione e l’autorappresentazione del defunto e delle sue virtù in contesti demitizzati. Tra i valori ricorrenti, esaltati nei sarcofagi vi è l’amore coniugale espresso dal tema della dextrarum iunctio, simbolo del matrimonio, la cultura, il potere, la saggezza, il coraggio, esplicitato dalle cacce ad animali feroci, il valore guerriero e la giustizia, dati soprattutto dalle scene di battaglia e di giudizio sui vinti. IV capitolo In questo capitolo si è provato a dare una nuova chiave di lettura ai sarcofagi imperiali di S. Elena e di Costantina. Nel primo caso si tratterebbe della vittoria eterna sul male, mentre nel secondo era un augurio di vita felice nell’aldilà in comunione con Dio e la resurrezione nel giorno del giudizio. V capitolo Il capitolo tratta le mediae voces, quei pezzi che non trovano una facile collocazione in ambito religioso poiché presentano temi neutri o ambivalenti, come quelli del buon pastore, di Prometeo, dell’orante. VI capitolo Qui trovano spazio i sarcofagi cristiani, dove sono scolpite varie scene tratte dalle Sacre Scritture. Anche in questo caso si andati al di là della semplice analisi stilistica per cercare di leggere il messaggio contenuto dalle sculture. Si sono scoperte preghiere, speranze e polemiche con le correnti cristiane considerate eretiche o “traditrici” della vera fede, contro la tradizionale interpretazione che voleva le figurazioni essenzialmente didascaliche. VII capitolo Qui vengono esposte le conclusioni da un punto di vista sociologico e psicologico.

Structural and functional analysis of the hepatitis C virus non-structural protein 5A

Das Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) ist ein umhülltes RNA Virus aus der Familie der Flaviviridae. Sein Genom kodiert für ein ca. 3000 Aminosäuren langes Polyprotein, welches co- und posttranslational in seine funktionellen Einheiten gespalten wird. Eines dieser viralen Proteine ist NS5A. Es handelt sich hierbei um ein stark phosphoryliertes Protein, das eine amphipatische α-Helix im Amino-Terminus trägt, welche für die Membran-Assoziation von NS5A verantwortlich ist. Welche Rolle die Phosphorylierung für die Funktion des Proteins spielt, bzw. welche Funktion NS5A überhaupt ausübt, ist zur Zeit noch unklar. Beobachtungen lassen Vermutungen über eine Funktion von NS5A bei der Resistenz infizierter Zellen gegenüber Interferon-alpha zu. Weiterhin wird vermutet, das NS5A als Komponente des membranständigen HCV Replikasekomplexes an der RNA Replikation beteiligt ist. Das Ziel dieser Doktorarbeit war es, die Funktion von NS5A für die RNA Replikation zu untersuchen. Zu diesem Zweck wurde eine Serie von Phosphorylierungsstellen-Mutanten generiert, die auf Ihre Replikationsfähigkeit und den Phosphorylierungsstatus hin untersucht wurden. Wir fanden, dass bestimmte Serin-Substitutionen im Zentrum von NS5A zu einer gesteigerten RNA Replikation führten, bei gleichzeitig reduzierter NS5A Hyperphosphorylierung. Weiterhin studierten wir den Einfluß von Mutationen in der Amino-terminalen amphipatischen α-Helix von NS5A auf die RNA-Replikation, sowie Phosphorylierung und subzelluläre Lokalisation des Proteins. Wir fanden, dass geringfügige strukturelle Veränderungen der amphipatischen Helix zu einer veränderten subzellulären Lokalisation von NS5A führten, was mit einer reduzierten oder komplett inhibierten RNA Replikation einherging. Zudem interferierten die strukturellen Veränderungen mit der Hyperphosphorylierung des Proteins, was den Schluß nahe legt, dass die amphipatische Helix eine wichtige strukturelle Komponente des Proteins darstellt, die für die korrekte Faltung und Phosphorylierung des Proteins essentiell ist. Als weitere Aspekte wurden die Trans-Komplementationsfähigkeit der verschiedenen viralen Komponenten des HCV Replikasekomplexes untersucht, sowie zelluläre Interaktionspartner von NS5A identifiziert. Zusammenfassend zeigen die Ergebnisse dieser Doktorarbeit, dass NS5A eine wichtige Rolle bei der RNA-Replikation spielt. Diese Funktion wird wahrscheinlich über den Phosphorylierungszustand des Proteins reguliert.

Aktivierung von c-Jun-N-terminalen Kinasen (SAPK,JNK) als Teil der späten Cisplatin abhängigen DNA-Schadensantwort

Stress-aktivierte-Protein-Kinasen (c-Jun-N-terminal kinases) SAPK/JNK werden sehr schnell nach Exposition von Zellen mit verschiedensten Noxen, wie beispielsweise Genotoxinen, aktiviert. Sie sind allerdings noch nicht als Teil der DNA-Schadensantwort etabliert. In dieser Arbeit sollte gezeigt werden, das SAPK/JNK einen wichtigen Teil innerhalb der DNA-Schadensantwort spielen. Aus diesem Grund wurde zu frühen (z.B.: 4 h) als auch zu späten Zeiten (z.B.: 24 h) die Bildung von DNA-Addukten nach Cisplatin Exposition untersucht und überprüft, ob diese mit dem Aktivierungsstatus der SAPK/JNK nach Cisplatinbehandlung korreliert. Menschliche Fibroblasten, die einen Defekt in der Transkription gekoppelten Nukleotid-Exzisionsreparatur (TC-NER) aufwiesen, wie beispielsweise CSB-Zellen (Cockayne Syndrom B) oder XPA-Zellen (Xeroderma Pigmentosum A), sind charakterisiert durch einen erhöhten Phosphorylierungsstatus der SAPK/JNK, 16 h nach Cisplatingabe, im Vergleich zu normalen Wildtyp-Fibroblasten. Die nach Cisplatin Exposition beobachtete Aktivierung der SAPK/JNK ist quantitativ jedoch nicht vergleichbar mit dem Level an gebildeten Cisplatin-DNA-Addukten, wie in den Southwestern- und Massenspektrometrischen Untersuchungen gezeigt werden konnte. Es konnten jedoch Parallelen zwischen der Aktivierung der SAPK/JNK, sowie den gezeigten γ-H2AX-Foci als auch der Aktivierung von Check-Point Kinasen gefunden werden. Dies lässt darauf schließen, dass DNA-Doppelstrangbrüche (DSB) an der späten Aktivierung des SAPK/JNK Signalweges beteiligt sind. Dementsprechend lässt sich ebenfalls in Zellen, die einen Defekt in der Reparatur von Doppelstrangsbrüchen aufweisen, wie beispielsweise DNA-PKcs Zellen, eine erhöhte, durch Cisplatin hervorgerufene späte Phosphorylierung der SAPK/JNK als auch eine vermehrte γ-H2AX-Foci Bildung und Check-Point Kinasen Aktivierung nachweisen. Vergleichend dazu zeigten Zellen mit einem Defekt in ATM (Ataxia telegiectasia mutated protein) oder XPC keine erhöhte Phosphorylierung zu späten Zeiten nach Cisplatin Behandlung. Weiterhin bleibt festzuhalten, dass die späte, durch Cisplatin hervorgerufene Schadensantwort unabhängig von p53, ER-Stress oder MKP-1 ist. Die SAPK/JNK Aktivierung nach Cisplatin Exposition erfordert funktionsfähige Rho-GTPasen und kann durch pharmakologische Hemmung der Tyrosin-Kinasen und durch N-Acetylcystein gehemmt werden. Es lässt sich zusammenfassend sagen, dass die durch Cisplatin induzierte späte SAPK/JNK Aktivierung durch die Formation von DSB initiiert wird und XPC, Rho-Proteine sowie Tyrosin Kinasen an der Signalweiterleitung beteiligt sind.

Targeted alpha-radionuclide therapy of functionally critically located gliomas with 213Bi-DOTA-[Thi8,Met(O2)11]-substance P: a pilot trial

Functionally critically located gliomas represent a challenging subgroup of intrinsic brain neoplasms. Standard therapeutic recommendations often cannot be applied, because radical treatment and preservation of neurological function are contrary goals. The successful targeting of gliomas with locally injected beta radiation-emitting (90)Y-DOTAGA-substance P has been shown previously. However, in critically located tumours, the mean tissue range of 5 mm of (90)Y may seriously damage adjacent brain areas. In contrast, the alpha radiation-emitting radionuclide (213)Bi with a mean tissue range of 81 microm may have a more favourable toxicity profile. Therefore, we evaluated locally injected (213)Bi-DOTA-substance P in patients with critically located gliomas as the primary therapeutic modality.

Comparison of C-11 methionine and C-11 choline for PET imaging of brain metastases: a prospective pilot study

The aim of the study was the comparison of C-11 methionine (MET) and C-11 choline (CHO) in the positron emission tomography (PET) imaging of brain metastases in correlation to the histopathology findings in stereotactic biopsy.

Role of hepatitis C virus genotype 3 in liver fibrosis progression - a systematic review and meta-analysis

The progression of liver fibrosis in chronic hepatitis C has long been considered to be independent from viral genotypes. However, recent studies suggest an association between Hepatitis C virus (HCV) genotype 3 and accelerated liver disease progression. We completed a systematic review and meta-analysis of studies evaluating the association between HCV genotypes and fibrosis progression. PubMed, Embase and ISI Web of Knowledge databases were searched for cohort, cross-sectional and case-control studies on treatment-naïve HCV-infected adults in which liver fibrosis progression rate (FPR) was assessed by the ratio of fibrosis stage in one single biopsy to the duration of infection (single-biopsy studies) or from the change in fibrosis stage between two biopsies (paired biopsies studies). A random effect model was used to derive FPR among different HCV genotypes. Eight single-biopsy studies (3182 patients, mean/median duration of infection ranging from 9 to 21 years) and eight paired biopsies studies (mean interval between biopsies 2-12 years) met the selection criteria. The odds ratio for the association of genotype 3 with accelerated fibrosis progression was 1.52 (95% CI 1.12-2.07, P = 0.007) in single-biopsy studies and 1.37 (95% CI 0.87-2.17, P = 0.17) in paired biopsy studies. In conclusion, viral genotype 3 was associated with faster fibrosis progression in single-biopsy studies. This observation may have important consequences on the clinical management of genotype 3-infected patients. The association was not significant in paired biopsies studies, although the latter may be limited by important indication bias, short observation time and small sample size.

Met-thodology

Met-regulated expression signature defines a subset of human hepatocellular carcinomas with poor prognosis and aggressive phenotype. Kaposi-Novak P, Lee JS, Gomez-Quiroz L, Coulouarn C, Factor VM, Thorgeirsson SS. Identification of specific gene expression signatures characteristic of oncogenic pathways is an important step toward molecular classification of human malignancies. Aberrant activation of the Met signaling pathway is frequently associated with tumour progression and metastasis. In this study, we defined the Met-dependent gene expression signature using global gene expression profiling of WT and Met-deficient primary mouse hepatocytes. Newly identified transcriptional targets of the Met pathway included genes involved in the regulation of oxidative stress responses as well as cell motility, cytoskeletal organization, and angiogenesis. To assess the importance of a Met-regulated gene expression signature, a comparative functional genomic approach was applied to 242 human hepatocellular carcinomas (HCCs) and 7 metastatic liver lesions. Cluster analysis revealed that a subset of human HCCs and all liver metastases shared the Met-induced expression signature. Furthermore, the presence of the Met signature showed significant correlation with increased vascular invasion rate and microvessel density as well as with decreased mean survival time of HCC patients. We conclude that the genetically defined gene expression signatures in combination with comparative functional genomics constitute an attractive paradigm for defining both the function of oncogenic pathways and the clinically relevant subgroups of human cancers. [Abstract reproduced by permission of J Clin Invest 2006;116:1582-1595].

Stejnulxin, a novel snake C-type lectin-like protein from Trimeresurus stejnegeri venom is a potent platelet agonist acting specifically via GPVI

Stejnulxin, a novel snake C-type lectin-like protein with potent platelet activating activity, was purified and characterized from Trimeresurus stejnegeri venom. Under non-reducing conditions, it migrated on a SDS-polyacrylamide gel with an apparent molecular mass of 120 kDa. On reduction, it separated into three polypeptide subunits with apparent molecular masses of 16 kDa (alpha), 20 kDa (beta1) and 22 kDa (beta2), respectively. The complete amino acid sequences of its subunits were deduced from cloned cDNAs. The N-terminal sequencing and cDNA cloning indicated that beta1 and beta2 subunits of stejnulxin have identical amino acid sequences and each contains two N-glycosylation sites. Accordingly, the molecular mass difference between beta1 and beta2 is caused by glycosylation heterogenity. The subunit amino acid sequences of stejnulxin are similar to those of convulxin, with sequence identities of 52.6% and 66.4% for the alpha and beta, respectively. Stejnulxin induced human platelet aggregation in a dose-dependent manner. Antibodies against alphaIIbbeta3 inhibited the aggregation response to stejnulxin, indicating that activation of alphaIIbbeta3 and binding of fibrinogen are involved in stejnulxin-induced platelet aggregation. Antibodies against GPIbalpha or alpha2beta1 as well as echicetin or rhodocetin had no significant effect on stejnulxin-induced platelet aggregation. However, platelet activation induced by stejnulxin was blocked by anti-GPVI antibodies. In addition, stejnulxin induced a tyrosine phosphorylation profile in platelets that resembled that produced by convulxin. Biotinylated stejnulxin bound specifically to platelet membrane GPVI.

Alboluxin, a snake C-type lectin from Trimeresurus albolabris venom is a potent platelet agonist acting via GPIb and GPVI

Alboluxin, a potent platelet activator, was purified from Trimeresurus albolabris venom with a mass of 120 kDa non-reduced and, after reduction, subunits of 17 and 24 kDa. Alboluxin induced a tyrosine phosphorylation profile in platelets that resembles those produced by collagen and convulxin, involving the time dependent tyrosine phosphorylation of Fc receptor gamma chain (Fc gamma), phospholipase Cgamma2 (PLCgamma2), LAT and p72SYK. Antibodies against both GPIb and GPVI inhibited platelet aggregation induced by alboluxin, whereas antibodies against alpha2beta1 had no effect. Inhibition of alphaIIb beta3 reduced the aggregation response to alboluxin, as well as tyrosine phosphorylation of platelet proteins, showing that activation of alphaIIb beta3 and binding of fibrinogen are involved in alboluxin-induced platelet aggregation and it is not simply agglutination. N-terminal sequence data from the beta-subunit of alboluxin indicates that it belongs to the snake C-type lectin family. The C-type lectin subunits are larger than usual possibly due to post-translational modifications such as glycosylation. Alboluxin is a hexameric (alphabeta)3 snake C-type lectin which activates platelets via both GPIb and GPVI.

GPIb is involved in platelet aggregation induced by mucetin, a snake C-type lectin protein from Chinese habu (Trimeresurus mucrosquamatus) venom

Mucetin (Trimeresurus mucrosquamatus venom activator, TMVA) is a potent platelet activator purified from Chinese habu (Trimeresurus mucrosquamatus) venom. It belongs to the snake venom heterodimeric C-type lectin family and exists in several multimeric forms. We now show that binding to platelet glycoprotein (GP) Ib is involved in mucetin-induced platelet aggregation. Antibodies against GPIb as well as the GPIb-blocking C-type lectin echicetin inhibited mucetin-induced platelet aggregation. Binding of GPIb was confirmed by affinity chromatography and Western blotting. Antibodies against GPVI inhibited convulxin- but not mucetin-induced aggregation. Signalling by mucetin involved rapid tyrosine phosphorylation of a number of proteins including Syk, Src, LAT and PLC gamma 2. Mucetin-induced phosphorylation of the Fc gamma chain of platelet was greatly promoted by inhibition of alpha(IIb)beta(3) by the peptidomimetic EMD 132338, suggesting that phosphatases downstream of alpha(IIb)beta(3) activation are involved in dephosphorylation of Fc gamma. Unlike other multimeric snake C-type lectins that act via GPIb and only agglutinate platelets, mucetin activates alpha(IIb)beta(3). Inhibition of alpha(IIb)beta(3) strongly reduced the aggregation response to mucetin, indicating that activation of alpha(IIb)beta(3) and binding of fibrinogen are involved in mucetin-induced platelet aggregation. Apyrase and aspirin also inhibit platelet aggregation induced by mucetin, suggesting that ADP and thromboxane A2 are involved in autocrine feedback. Sequence and structural comparison with closely related members of this protein family point to features that may be responsible for the functional differences.

Bilinexin, a snake C-type lectin from Agkistrodon bilineatus venom agglutinates platelets via GPIb and alpha2beta1

A new snake protein, named bilinexin, has been purified from Agkistrodon bilineatus venom by ion-exchange chromatography and gel filtration chromatography. Under non-reducing conditions it has a mass of 110 kDa protein on SDS-PAGE. On reduction, it can be separated into five subunits with masses in the range 13-25 kDa. The N-terminal sequences of these subunits are very similar to those of convulxin or the alboaggregins, identifying bilinexin as a new member of the snake C-type lectin family, unusual in having multiple subunits. Bilinexin agglutinates fixed platelets. washed platelets and platelet rich plasma (PRP) without obvious activation (shape change) as confirmed by light microscope examination. Both inhibitory and binding studies indicate that antibodies against alpha2beta1 inhibit not only platelet agglutination induced by bilinexin, but also bilinexin binding to platelets. VM16d, a monoclonal anti-GPIbalpha antibody, completely inhibits platelet agglutination induced by bilinexin, and polyclonal antibodies against GPIbalpha prevent its binding to platelets. However, neither convulxin, polyclonal anti-GPVI antibodies, nor GPIIb/IIIa inhibitors affect its binding to and agglutination of platelets. Bilinexin neither activates GPIIb/IIIa integrin on platelets nor induces tyrosine phosphorylation of platelet proteins, nor increases intracellular Ca2+ in platelets. Like alboaggregin B, bilinexin agglutinates platelets, which makes it a good tool to investigate the differences in mechanism between snake C-type lectins causing platelet agglutination and those that induce full activation.

Echicetin, a GPIb-binding snake C-type lectin from Echis carinatus, also contains a binding site for IgMkappa responsible for platelet agglutination in plasma and inducing signal transduction

Echicetin, a heterodimeric snake C-type lectin from Echis carinatus, is known to bind specifically to platelet glycoprotein (GP)Ib. We now show that, in addition, it agglutinates platelets in plasma and induces platelet signal transduction. The agglutination is caused by binding to a specific protein in plasma. The protein was isolated from plasma and shown to cause platelet agglutination when added to washed platelets in the presence of echicetin. It was identified as immunoglobulin Mkappa (IgMkappa) by peptide sequencing and dot blotting with specific heavy and light chain anti-immunoglobulin reagents. Platelet agglutination by clustering echicetin with IgMkappa induced P-selectin expression and activation of GPIIb/IIIa as well as tyrosine phosphorylation of several signal transduction molecules, including p53/56(LYN), p64, p72(SYK), p70 to p90, and p120. However, neither ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid nor specific inhibition of GPIIb/IIIa affected platelet agglutination or activation by echicetin. Platelet agglutination and induction of signal transduction could also be produced by cross-linking biotinylated echicetin with avidin. These data indicate that clustering of GPIb alone is sufficient to activate platelets. In vivo, echicetin probably activates platelets rather than inhibits platelet activation, as previously proposed, accounting for the observed induction of thrombocytopenia.

Aggretin, a heterodimeric C-type lectin from Calloselasma rhodostoma (malayan pit viper), stimulates platelets by binding to alpha 2beta 1 integrin and glycoprotein Ib, activating Syk and phospholipase Cgamma 2, but does not involve the glycoprotein VI/Fc receptor gamma chain collagen receptor

Aggretin, a potent platelet activator, was isolated from Calloselasma rhodostoma venom, and 30-amino acid N-terminal sequences of both subunits were determined. Aggretin belongs to the heterodimeric snake C-type lectin family and is thought to activate platelets by binding to platelet glycoprotein alpha(2)beta(1). We now show that binding to glycoprotein (GP) Ib is also required. Aggretin-induced platelet activation was inhibited by a monoclonal antibody to GPIb as well as by antibodies to alpha(2)beta(1). Binding of both of these platelet receptors to aggretin was confirmed by affinity chromatography. No binding of other major platelet membrane glycoproteins, in particular GPVI, to aggretin was detected. Aggretin also activates platelets from Fc receptor gamma chain (Fcgamma)-deficient mice to a greater extent than those from normal control mice, showing that it does not use the GPVI/Fcgamma pathway. Platelets from Fcgamma-deficient mice expressed fibrinogen receptors normally in response to collagen, although they did not aggregate, indicating that these platelets may partly compensate via other receptors including alpha(2)beta(1) or GPIb for the lack of the Fcgamma pathway. Signaling by aggretin involves a dose-dependent lag phase followed by rapid tyrosine phosphorylation of a number of proteins. Among these are p72(SYK), p125(FAK), and PLCgamma2, whereas, in comparison with collagen and convulxin, the Fcgamma subunit neither is phosphorylated nor coprecipitates with p72(SYK). This supports an independent, GPIb- and integrin-based pathway for activation of p72(SYK) not involving the Fcgamma receptor.