Protein kinase C-zeta mediates retinal degeneration in response to TNF.

Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF) has been implicated in retinal ganglion cells (RGC) degeneration in glaucoma. Atypical protein kinase C (PKC) zeta is involved in cell protection against various stresses. The aim of this study was to investigate the potential proapoptotic effects of intravitreal injections of TNF with or without PKCzeta specific inhibitor on the rat retina. TNF was injected in the vitreous of rat eyes alone or in combination with specific PKCzeta inhibitor. PKCzeta and NF-kappaB were studied by immunohistochemistry and western-blotting analysis on retina, and apoptosis quantified by the TUNEL assay. While low basal PKCzeta was observed in the control eyes, TNF induced intense expression of PKCzeta mostly in bipolar cells processes. PKCzeta staining became nuclear when TNF was coinjected with PKCzeta inhibitor. TNF alone did not induce apoptosis in the retina. Coinjection of the PKCzeta-specific inhibitor and TNF, however, induced apoptosis in the inner nuclear and ganglion cell layers. The PKCzeta-specific inhibitor unmasks retinal cells to TNF cytotoxicity showing a link between the proapoptotic effects of TNF and the antiapoptotic PKCzeta signaling pathway.

Activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor beta/delta inhibits lipopolysaccharide-induced cytokine production in adipocytes by lowering nuclear factor-kappaB activity via extracellular signal-related kinase 1/2.

OBJECTIVE: Chronic activation of the nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) in white adipose tissue leads to increased production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, which are involved in the development of insulin resistance. It is presently unknown whether peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) beta/delta activation prevents inflammation in adipocytes. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS AND RESULTS: First, we examined whether the PPARbeta/delta agonist GW501516 prevents lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced cytokine production in differentiated 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Treatment with GW501516 blocked LPS-induced IL-6 expression and secretion by adipocytes and the subsequent activation of the signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3)-Suppressor of cytokine signaling 3 (SOCS3) pathway. This effect was associated with the capacity of GW501516 to impede LPS-induced NF-kappaB activation. Second, in in vivo studies, white adipose tissue from Zucker diabetic fatty (ZDF) rats, compared with that of lean rats, showed reduced PPARbeta/delta expression and PPAR DNA-binding activity, which was accompanied by enhanced IL-6 expression and NF-kappaB DNA-binding activity. Furthermore, IL-6 expression and NF-kappaB DNA-binding activity was higher in white adipose tissue from PPARbeta/delta-null mice than in wild-type mice. Because mitogen-activated protein kinase-extracellular signal-related kinase (ERK)1/2 (MEK1/2) is involved in LPS-induced NF-kappaB activation in adipocytes, we explored whether PPARbeta/delta prevented NF-kappaB activation by inhibiting this pathway. Interestingly, GW501516 prevented ERK1/2 phosphorylation by LPS. Furthermore, white adipose tissue from animal showing constitutively increased NF-kappaB activity, such as ZDF rats and PPARbeta/delta-null mice, also showed enhanced phospho-ERK1/2 levels. CONCLUSIONS: These findings indicate that activation of PPARbeta/delta inhibits enhanced cytokine production in adipocytes by preventing NF-kappaB activation via ERK1/2, an effect that may help prevent insulin resistance.

Ammonia-induced toxicity in developing brain cells and strategies for neuroprotection

RESUME L'hyperammonémie est particulièrement toxique pour le cerveau des jeunes patients et entraîne une atrophie corticale, un élargissement des ventricules et des défauts de myélinisation, responsables de retards mentaux et développementaux. Les traitements actuels se limitent à diminuer le plus rapidement possible le taux d'ammoniaque dans l'organisme. L'utilisation de traitements neuroprotecteurs pendant les crises d'hyperammonémie permettrait de contrecarrer les effets neurologiques de l'ammoniaque et de prévenir l'apparition des troubles neurologiques. Au cours de cette thèse, nous avons testé trois stratégies de neuroprotection sur des cultures de cellules en agrégats issues du cortex d'embryons de rats et traitées à l'ammoniaque. - Nous avons tout d'abord testé si l'inhibition de protéines intracellulaires impliquées dans le déclenchement de la mort cellulaire pouvait protéger les cellules de la toxicité de l'ammoniaque. Nous avons montré que L'exposition à l'ammoniaque altérait la viabilité des neurones et des oligodendrocytes, et activait les caspases, la calpaïne et la kinase-5 dépendante des cyclines (cdk5) associée à son activateur p25. Alors que l'inhibition pharmacologique des caspases et de la calpaïne n'a pas permis de protéger les cellules cérébrales, un inhibiteur de la cdk5, appelé roscovitine, a réduit significativement la mort neuronale. L'inhibition de la cdk5 semble donc être une stratégie thérapeutique prometteuse pour prévenir 1es effets toxiques de 1'ammoniaque sur les neurones. - Nous avons ensuite étudié les mécanismes neuroprotecteurs déclenchés par le cerveau en réponse à la toxicité de l'ammoniaque. Nous avons montré que l'ammoniaque induisait la synthèse du facteur neurotrophique ciliaire (CNTF) par les astrocytes, via l'activation de la protéine kinase (MIAPK) p38. D'autre part, l'ajout de CNTF a permis de protéger les oligodendrocytes mais pas les neurones des cultures exposées à l'ammoniaque, via les voies de signalisations JAK/STAT, SAPK/JNK et c-jun. - Dans une dernière partie, nous avons voulu contrecarrer, par l'ajout de créatine, le déficit énergétique cérébral induit par l'ammoniaque. La créatine a permis de protéger des cellules de type astrocytaire mais pas les cellules cérébrales en agrégats. Cette thèse amis en évidence que les stratégies de neuroprotection chez les patients hyperammonémiques nécessiteront de cibler plusieurs voies de signalisation afin de protéger tous les types cellulaires du cerveau. Summary : In pediatric patients, hyperammonemia is mainly caused by urea cycle disorders or other inborn errors of metabolism, and leads to neurological injury with cortical atrophy, ventricular enlargement and demyelination. Children rescued from neonatal hyperammonemia show significant risk of mental retardation and developmental disabilities. The mainstay of therapy is limited to ammonia lowering through dietary restriction and alternative pathway treatments. However, the possibility of using treatments in a neuroprotective goal may be useful to improve the neurological outcome of patients. Thus, the main objective of this work was to investigate intracellular and extracellular signaling pathways altered by ammonia tonicity, so as to identify new potential therapeutic targets. Experiments were conducted in reaggregated developing brain cell cultures exposed to ammonia, as a model for the developing CNS of hyperammonemic young patients. Theses strategies of neuroprotection were tested: - The first strategy consisted in inhibiting intracellular proteins triggering cell death. Our data indicated that ammonia exposure altered the viability of neurons and oligodendrocytes. Apoptosis and proteins involved in the trigger of apoptosis, such as caspases, calpain and cyclin-dependent kinase-5 (cdk5) with its activator p25, were activated by ammonia exposure. While caspases and calpain inhibitors exhibited no protective effects, roscovitine, a cdk5 inhibitor, reduced ammonia-induced neuronal death. This work revealed that inhibition of cdk5 seems a promising strategy to prevent the toxic effects of ammonia on neurons. - The second strategy consisted in mimicking, the endogenous protective mechanisms triggered by ammonia in the brain. Ammonia exposure caused an increase of the ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) expression, through the activation of the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) in astrocytes. Treatment of cultures exposed to ammonia with exogenous CNTF demonstrated strong protective effects on oligodendrocytes but not on neurons. These protective effects seemed to involve JAK/STAT, SAPK/JNK and c-jun proteins. - The third strategy consisted in preventing the ammonia-induced cerebral energy deficit with creatine. Creatine treatment protected the survival of astrocyte-like cells through MAPKs pathways. In contrast, it had no protective effects in reaggregated developing brain cell cultures exposed to ammonia. The present study suggests that neuroprotective strategies should optimally be directed at multiple targets to prevent ammonia-induced alterations of the different brain cell types.

Activation of c-Jun in the nuclei of neurons of the CA-1 in thrombin preconditioning occurs via PAR-1.

Recently it has been shown that the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) plays a role in thrombin preconditioning (TPC) in vivo and in vitro. To investigate further the pathways involved in TPC, we performed an immunohistochemical study in hippocampal slice cultures. Here we show that the major target of JNK, the AP-1 transcription factor c-Jun, is activated by phosphorylation in the nuclei of neurons of the CA1 region by using phospho-specific antibodies against the two JNK phosphorylation sites. The activation is early and transient, peaking at 90 min and not present by 3 hr after low-dose thrombin administration. Treatment of cultures with a synthetic thrombin receptor agonist results in the same c-Jun activation profile and protection against subsequent OGD, both of which are prevented by specific JNK inhibitors, showing that thrombin signals through PAR-1 to JNK. By using an antibody against the Ser 73 phosphorylation site of c-Jun, we identify possible additional TPC substrates.

Hepatitis B Virus e Antigen Physically Associates With Receptor-Interacting Serine/Threonine Protein Kinase 2 and Regulates IL-6 Gene Expression.

We previously reported that hepatitis B virus (HBV) e antigen (HBeAg) inhibits production of interleukin 6 by suppressing NF-κB activation. NF-κB is known to be activated through receptor-interacting serine/threonine protein kinase 2 (RIPK2), and we examined the mechanisms of interleukin 6 regulation by HBeAg. HBeAg inhibits RIPK2 expression and interacts with RIPK2, which may represent 2 mechanisms through which HBeAg blocks nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-containing protein 1 ligand-induced NF-κB activation in HepG2 cells. Our findings identified novel molecular mechanisms whereby HBeAg modulates intracellular signaling pathways by targeting RIPK2, supporting the concept that HBeAg could impair both innate and adaptive immune responses to promote chronic HBV infection.

Interactome mapping of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-mammalian target of rapamycin pathway identifies deformed epidermal autoregulatory factor-1 as a new glycogen synthase kinase-3 interactor.

The phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-mammalian target of rapamycin (PI3K-mTOR) pathway plays pivotal roles in cell survival, growth, and proliferation downstream of growth factors. Its perturbations are associated with cancer progression, type 2 diabetes, and neurological disorders. To better understand the mechanisms of action and regulation of this pathway, we initiated a large scale yeast two-hybrid screen for 33 components of the PI3K-mTOR pathway. Identification of 67 new interactions was followed by validation by co-affinity purification and exhaustive literature curation of existing information. We provide a nearly complete, functionally annotated interactome of 802 interactions for the PI3K-mTOR pathway. Our screen revealed a predominant place for glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK3) A and B and the AMP-activated protein kinase. In particular, we identified the deformed epidermal autoregulatory factor-1 (DEAF1) transcription factor as an interactor and in vitro substrate of GSK3A and GSK3B. Moreover, GSK3 inhibitors increased DEAF1 transcriptional activity on the 5-HT1A serotonin receptor promoter. We propose that DEAF1 may represent a therapeutic target of lithium and other GSK3 inhibitors used in bipolar disease and depression.

Spatial, temporal and subcellular localization of islet-brain 1 (IB1), a homologue of JIP-1, in mouse brain.

Islet-brain 1 (IB1) was recently identified as a DNA-binding protein of the GLUT2 gene promoter. The mouse IB1 is the rat and human homologue of the Jun-interacting protein 1 (JIP-1) which has been recognized as a key player in the regulation of c-Jun amino-terminal kinase (JNK) mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways. JIP-1 is involved in the control of apoptosis and may play a role in brain development and aging. Here, IB1 was studied in adult and developing mouse brain tissue by in situ hybridization, Northern and Western blot analysis at cellular and subcellular levels, as well as by immunocytochemistry in brain sections and cell cultures. IB1 expression was localized in the synaptic regions of the olfactory bulb, retina, cerebral and cerebellar cortex and hippocampus in the adult mouse brain. IB1 was also detected in a restricted number of axons, as in the mossy fibres from dentate gyrus in the hippocampus, and was found in soma, dendrites and axons of cerebellar Purkinje cells. After birth, IB1 expression peaks at postnatal day 15. IB1 was located in axonal and dendritic growth cones in primary telencephalon cells. By biochemical and subcellular fractionation of neuronal cells, IB1 was detected both in the cytosolic and membrane fractions. Taken together with previous data, the restricted neuronal expression of IB1 in developing and adult brain and its prominent localization in synapses suggest that the protein may be critical for cell signalling in developing and mature nerve terminals.

Coagulation factor Xa activates thrombin in ischemic neural tissue.

Thrombin is involved in mediating neuronal death in cerebral ischemia. We investigated its so far unknown mode of activation in ischemic neural tissue. We used an in vitro approach to distinguish the role of circulating coagulation factors from endogenous cerebral mechanisms. We modeled ischemic stroke by subjecting rat organotypic hippocampal slice cultures to 30-min oxygen (5%) and glucose (1 mmol/L) deprivation (OGD). Perinuclear activated factor X (FXa) immunoreactivity was observed in CA1 neurons after OGD. Selective FXa inhibition by fondaparinux during and after OGD significantly reduced neuronal death in the CA1 after 48 h. Thrombin enzyme activity was increased in the medium 24 h after OGD and this increase was prevented by fondaparinux suggesting that FXa catalyzes the conversion of prothrombin to thrombin in neural tissue after ischemia in vitro. Treatment with SCH79797, a selective antagonist of the thrombin receptor protease-activated receptor-1 (PAR-1), significantly decreased neuronal cell death indicating that thrombin signals ischemic damage via PAR-1. The c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway plays an important role in excitotoxicity and cerebral ischemia and we observed activation of the JNK substrate, c-Jun in our model. Both the FXa inhibitor, fondaparinux and the PAR-1 antagonist SCH79797, decreased the level of phospho-c-Jun Ser73. These results indicate that FXa activates thrombin in cerebral ischemia, which leads via PAR-1 to the activation of the JNK pathway resulting in neuronal death.

AMP-activated protein kinase mediates glucocorticoid-induced metabolic changes: a novel mechanism in Cushing's syndrome.

Chronic exposure to glucocorticoid hormones, resulting from either drug treatment or Cushing's syndrome, results in insulin resistance, central obesity, and symptoms similar to the metabolic syndrome. We hypothesized that the major metabolic effects of corticosteroids are mediated by changes in the key metabolic enzyme adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activity. Activation of AMPK is known to stimulate appetite in the hypothalamus and stimulate catabolic processes in the periphery. We assessed AMPK activity and the expression of several metabolic enzymes in the hypothalamus, liver, adipose tissue, and heart of a rat glucocorticoid-excess model as well as in in vitro studies using primary human adipose and primary rat hypothalamic cell cultures, and a human hepatoma cell line treated with dexamethasone and metformin. Glucocorticoid treatment inhibited AMPK activity in rat adipose tissue and heart, while stimulating it in the liver and hypothalamus. Similar data were observed in vitro in the primary adipose and hypothalamic cells and in the liver cell line. Metformin, a known AMPK regulator, prevented the corticosteroid-induced effects on AMPK in human adipocytes and rat hypothalamic neurons. Our data suggest that glucocorticoid-induced changes in AMPK constitute a novel mechanism that could explain the increase in appetite, the deposition of lipids in visceral adipose and hepatic tissue, as well as the cardiac changes that are all characteristic of glucocorticoid excess. Our data suggest that metformin treatment could be effective in preventing the metabolic complications of chronic glucocorticoid excess.

A-Kinase Anchoring Protein Lbc Coordinates a p38 Activating Signaling Complex Controlling Compensatory Cardiac Hypertrophy.

In response to stress, the heart undergoes a remodeling process associated with cardiac hypertrophy that eventually leads to heart failure. A-kinase anchoring proteins (AKAPs) have been shown to coordinate numerous prohypertrophic signaling pathways in cultured cardiomyocytes. However, it remains to be established whether AKAP-based signaling complexes control cardiac hypertrophy and remodeling in vivo. In the current study, we show that AKAP-Lbc assembles a signaling complex composed of the kinases PKN, MLTK, MKK3, and p38α that mediates the activation of p38 in cardiomyocytes in response to stress signals. To address the role of this complex in cardiac remodeling, we generated transgenic mice displaying cardiomyocyte-specific overexpression of a molecular inhibitor of the interaction between AKAP-Lbc and the p38-activating module. Our results indicate that disruption of the AKAP-Lbc/p38 signaling complex inhibits compensatory cardiomyocyte hypertrophy in response to aortic banding-induced pressure overload and promotes early cardiac dysfunction associated with increased myocardial apoptosis, stress gene activation, and ventricular dilation. Attenuation of hypertrophy results from a reduced protein synthesis capacity, as indicated by decreased phosphorylation of 4E-binding protein 1 and ribosomal protein S6. These results indicate that AKAP-Lbc enhances p38-mediated hypertrophic signaling in the heart in response to abrupt increases in the afterload.

Job switching in ants: role of a kinase

Reproductive division of labour is a defining characteristic of eusociality in insect societies. The task of reproduction is performed by the fertile males and queens of the colony, while the non-fertile female worker caste performs all other tasks related to colony upkeep, foraging and nest defence. Division of labour, or polyethism, within the worker caste is organized such that specific tasks are performed by discrete groups of individuals. Ordinarily, workers of one group will not participate in the tasks of other groups making the groups of workers behaviourally distinct. In some eusocial species, this has led to the evolution of a remarkable diversity of subcaste morphologies within the worker caste, and a division of labour amongst the subcastes. This caste polyethism is best represented in many species of ants where a smaller-bodied minor subcaste typically performs foraging duties while larger individuals of the major subcaste are tasked with nest defence. Recent work suggests that polyethism in the worker caste is influenced by an evolutionarily conserved, yet diversely regulated, gene called foraging (for), which encodes a cGMP-dependent protein kinase (PKG). Additionally, flexibility in the activity of this enzyme allows for workers from one task group to assist the workers of other task groups in times of need during the colony's life.

CDK10/cyclin M is a protein kinase that controls ETS2 degradation and is deficient in STAR syndrome.

Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) regulate a variety of fundamental cellular processes. CDK10 stands out as one of the last orphan CDKs for which no activating cyclin has been identified and no kinase activity revealed. Previous work has shown that CDK10 silencing increases ETS2 (v-ets erythroblastosis virus E26 oncogene homolog 2)-driven activation of the MAPK pathway, which confers tamoxifen resistance to breast cancer cells. The precise mechanisms by which CDK10 modulates ETS2 activity, and more generally the functions of CDK10, remain elusive. Here we demonstrate that CDK10 is a cyclin-dependent kinase by identifying cyclin M as an activating cyclin. Cyclin M, an orphan cyclin, is the product of FAM58A, whose mutations cause STAR syndrome, a human developmental anomaly whose features include toe syndactyly, telecanthus, and anogenital and renal malformations. We show that STAR syndrome-associated cyclin M mutants are unable to interact with CDK10. Cyclin M silencing phenocopies CDK10 silencing in increasing c-Raf and in conferring tamoxifen resistance to breast cancer cells. CDK10/cyclin M phosphorylates ETS2 in vitro, and in cells it positively controls ETS2 degradation by the proteasome. ETS2 protein levels are increased in cells derived from a STAR patient, and this increase is attributable to decreased cyclin M levels. Altogether, our results reveal an additional regulatory mechanism for ETS2, which plays key roles in cancer and development. They also shed light on the molecular mechanisms underlying STAR syndrome.

Role of salt-inducible kinase 1 in the activation of MEF2-dependent transcription by BDNF.

Substantial evidence supports a role for myocyte enhancer factor 2 (MEF2)-mediated transcription in neuronal survival, differentiation and synaptic function. In developing neurons, it has been shown that MEF2-dependent transcription is regulated by neurotrophins. Despite these observations, little is known about the cellular mechanisms by which neurotrophins activate MEF2 transcriptional activity. In this study, we examined the role of salt-inducible kinase 1 (SIK1), a member of the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) family, in the regulation of MEF2-mediated transcription by the neurotrophin brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). We show that BDNF increases the expression of SIK1 in primary cultures of rat cortical neurons through the extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2)-signaling pathway. In addition to inducing SIK1 expression, BDNF triggers the phosphorylation of SIK1 at Thr182 and its translocation from the cytoplasm to the nucleus of cortical neurons. The effects of BDNF on the expression, phosphorylation and, translocation of SIK1 are followed by the phosphorylation and nuclear export of histone deacetylase 5 (HDAC5). Blockade of SIK activity with a low concentration of staurosporine abolished BDNF-induced phosphorylation and nuclear export of HDAC5 in cortical neurons. Importantly, stimulation of HDAC5 phosphorylation and nuclear export by BDNF is accompanied by the activation of MEF2-mediated transcription, an effect that is suppressed by staurosporine. Consistent with these data, BDNF induces the expression of the MEF2 target genes Arc and Nur77, in a staurosporine-sensitive manner. In further support of the role of SIK1 in the regulation of MEF2-dependent transcription by BDNF, we found that expression of wild-type SIK1 or S577A SIK1, a mutated form of SIK1 which is retained in the nucleus of transfected cells, is sufficient to enhance MEF2 transcriptional activity in cortical neurons. Together, these data identify a previously unrecognized mechanism by which SIK1 mediates the activation of MEF2-dependent transcription by BDNF.

Endocytosis, autophagy and JNK inhibition in neuroprotection against excitotoxicity and neonatal cerebral ischemia

Abstract : Neonatal stroke occurs in 1 out of 4000 live births and usually leads to serious motor and cognitive disabilities. Ischemic brain injury results from a complex of pathophysiological events that evolve over space and time making it difficult to devise successful therapy. To date, there are no effective treatments for perinatal brain damage. Most clinical trials of neuroprotectaot drugs have failed because of their side-effects. For this reason it is important to find ways to target drugs specifically into the stressed cells. In this study we plan to contribute to the development of an efficient neuroprotective strategy against excitotoxic cell death in the neonate. In order to achieve this goal, several strategies were followed. A recently described phenomenon of induced endocytosis associated with excitotoxicity was more deeply investigated. As a simplified model we used dissociated cortical neurons exposed to an excitotoxic dose of NMDA, and we showed that this phenomenon depends on clathrin and dynamin. Using a model of neonatal focal cerebral ischemia, we demonstrated that the excitotoxicity-related endocytosis targets molecules such as TAT peptides into stressed neurons. These appear to be viable, raising the possibility of using this phenomenon as a doorway for neuroprotection. One part of the project was devoted to the study of the TAT-conjugated JNK inhibitory peptide, D-JNKI1. Adose-response study showed strong neuroprotection over a wide dose-range in the case of delayed administration (either intravenous or intraperitoneal). Since D-JNKI1 is aTAT-linked peptide, we investigated the role of its own NMDA-induced endocytosis in its neuroprotective efficacy. Furthermore, we showed that this endocytosis is JNK dependent, and that D-JNKI1 regulates its own uptake. We additionally studied the different types of cell death involved in a model of neonatal focal cerebral ischemia. Necrosis occurred rapidly in the center of the lesion whereas apoptosis and autophagic cell death occurred late at the lesion border. Inhibiting apoptosis was not protective, but use of autophagy inhibitor 3methyladenine provided a strong neuroprotection. Finally, combining two neuroprotectants that target different intracellular pathways was neuroprotective in a severe model of cerebral ischemia where neither of the drugs was efficient when administered individually. Résumé : L'ischémie néonatale connaît une incidence de 1 naissance sur 4000, entraînant généralement de sérieux dysfonctionnements moteurs et cognitifs. L'ischémie cérébrale résulte d'évènements physiopathologiques complexes qui évoluent dans l'espace et le temps rendant difficile la conception de thérapies efficaces. A l'heure actuelle, aucun traitement n'existe pour lutter contre les accidents vasculaires cérébraux qui se produisent autour de la naissance. La plupart des essais cliniques concernant des molécules neuroprotectrices ont échoué du fait de leurs effets secondaires néfastes. Pour cette raison, il est important de trouver des moyens de cibler les drogues dans les cellules stressées spécifiquement. Dans cette étude nous visons à participer au développement d'une stratégie neuroprotectrice efficace contre l'ischémie cérébrale chez le nouveau-né. Dans ce but, plusieurs stratégies ont été poursuivies. Un nouveau phénomène d'endocytose induite par un stimulus excitotoxique a été récemment décrit. Une partie de cette étude va consister à mieux comprendre ce phénomène. Pour céla, nous avons utilisé comme modèle d'étude simplifié des cultures dissociées de neurones corticaux exposées à une dose excitotoxique de NMDA. Nous avons ainsi montré que cette endocytose associée à l'excitotoxicité dépend de la clathrine et de la dynamine. A l'aide d'un modèle d'ischémie cérébrale focale chez le raton de 12 jours, nous avons démontré que cette endocytose induite par l'excitotoxicité permet de cibler des molécules diverses et en particulier les peptides TAT dans les neurones stressés. Ces neurones fortement endocytiques apparaissent comme étant encore viables, ouvrant la possibilité d'utiliser cette endocytose comme moyen d'entrée pour des molécules thérapeutiques. Une partie du projet a été consacrée à l'étude d'un inhibiteur de la voie JNK, couplé au TAT, appelé D-JNKI1. Des études de dose réponse du D-JNKI1 ont été réalisées chez l'animal, testant les effets d'une administration retardée en injection intraveineuse ou intra péritonéale. Ces études démontrent qu'une large gamme de dose permet d'obCenir une réduction de la taille de la lésion. Comme D-JNK11 est couplé au peptide TAT, nous avons étudié la contribution que sa propre endocytose lors de l'excitotoxicité apporte à ses effets protecteurs. Par ailleurs, nous avons montré que cette endocytose induite par l'excitotoxicité dépend de la voie de signalisation JNK et que D-JNK11 est donc capable de réguler sa propre entrée. Nous avons en parallèle étudié les différents types de mort cellulaires impliqués dans le développement de la lésion dans un modèle sévère d'ischémie cérébrale chez le raton nouveau-né. La mort cellulaire par nécrose se développe rapidement dans le centre de la lésion alors que les morts cellulaires par apoptose et autophagique vont apparaître plus tard et au bord de la lésion. Inhiber l'apoptose n'a pas permis de réduire la taille de la lésion alors que l'utilisation d'un inhibiteur d'autophagie, la 3-méthyladénine, procure une forte neuroprotection. Finalement, la combinaison de deux peptides qui ciblent différentes voies de signalisation intracellulaire permet d'obtenir une bonne protection dans le modèle d'ischémie sévère dans lequel aucun des deux peptides administré séparément n'a donné d'effets bénéfiques.