Análisis de parámetros de fendas para la estimación de las propiedades mecánicas de vigas de madera de Pinus sylvestris L. Analysis of parameters for assessing drying fissures to estimate their influence on the mechanical properties of Pinus sylvestris L. wooden beams

El principal objetivo de este estudio es evaluar la influencia de las fendas de secado en las propiedades mecánicas de vigas de madera. Para esto, se utilizan 40 vigas de Pino silvestre (Pinus sylvestris L) de 4200 mm de longitud y 150x200 mm de sección que fueron ensayadas según norma EN 408. Las fendas se registran detalladamente atendiendo a su longitud y posición en cada cara de la viga, y midiendo el espesor y la profundidad cada 100mm a lo largo de la viga. Solo el 10% de la muestra es rechazada por las fendas, según los criterios establecidos por la norma española de clasificación visual UNE 56544. Para evaluar la influencia de las fendas en las propiedades mecánicas, se usan tres parámetros globales basados en el área, el volumen o la profundad de la fenda, y dos locales basados en la profundidad máxima y la profundidad en la zona de rotura. Además se determina la densidad de las piezas. Estos parámetros se comparan con las propiedades mecánicas (tensión de rotura, módulo de elasticidad y energía de rotura) y se encuentra escasa relación entre ellos. Las mejores correlaciones se encuentran entre los parámetros relacionados con la profundidad de las fendas, tanto con el módulo de elasticidad como con la tensión de rotura. The aim of this study is the evaluation of the influence of drying fissures on the mechanical properties of timber beams. For that purpose, 40 sawn timber pieces of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) with 150x200 mm in cross-section and 4200 mm in length have been tested according to EN 408, obtaining MOR and MOE. The fissures were registered in detail measuring their length and position in each face of the beam, and the thickness and depth every 100 mm in length. Only 10 % of the pieces were rejected because fissures, according to UNE 56544 Spanish visual grading standard. To evaluate the influence of fissures in mechanical properties three global parameters: Fissures Area Ratio or ratio between the area occupied by fissures and the total area in the neutral axis plane of the beam; Fissures Volume Ratio or ratio between volume of fissures and the total volume of the beam; Fissures Average Depth and two local parameters were used: Fissures Maximum Depth in the beam, and Fissures Depth in the broken zone of the beam. Also the density of the beams was registered. These parameters were compared with mechanical properties (tensile strength, elasticity modulus, and rupture energy) and the relationship between them had not been founded. The best relationship was founded between the elasticity modulus y the tensile strength with the parameters which included the depth of the fissures.

Localization and Tracking in Energy-Constrained Networks with Dynamic Connectivity

Systems used for target localization, such as goods, individuals, or animals, commonly rely on operational means to meet the final application demands. However, what would happen if some means were powered up randomly by harvesting systems? And what if those devices not randomly powered had their duty cycles restricted? Under what conditions would such an operation be tolerable in localization services? What if the references provided by nodes in a tracking problem were distorted? Moreover, there is an underlying topic common to the previous questions regarding the transfer of conceptual models to reality in field tests: what challenges are faced upon deploying a localization network that integrates energy harvesting modules? The application scenario of the system studied is a traditional herding environment of semi domesticated reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) in northern Scandinavia. In these conditions, information on approximate locations of reindeer is as important as environmental preservation. Herders also need cost-effective devices capable of operating unattended in, sometimes, extreme weather conditions. The analyses developed are worthy not only for the specific application environment presented, but also because they may serve as an approach to performance of navigation systems in absence of reasonably accurate references like the ones of the Global Positioning System (GPS). A number of energy-harvesting solutions, like thermal and radio-frequency harvesting, do not commonly provide power beyond one milliwatt. When they do, battery buffers may be needed (as it happens with solar energy) which may raise costs and make systems more dependent on environmental temperatures. In general, given our problem, a harvesting system is needed that be capable of providing energy bursts of, at least, some milliwatts. Many works on localization problems assume that devices have certain capabilities to determine unknown locations based on range-based techniques or fingerprinting which cannot be assumed in the approach considered herein. The system presented is akin to range-free techniques, but goes to the extent of considering very low node densities: most range-free techniques are, therefore, not applicable. Animal localization, in particular, uses to be supported by accurate devices such as GPS collars which deplete batteries in, maximum, a few days. Such short-life solutions are not particularly desirable in the framework considered. In tracking, the challenge may times addressed aims at attaining high precision levels from complex reliable hardware and thorough processing techniques. One of the challenges in this Thesis is the use of equipment with just part of its facilities in permanent operation, which may yield high input noise levels in the form of distorted reference points. The solution presented integrates a kinetic harvesting module in some nodes which are expected to be a majority in the network. These modules are capable of providing power bursts of some milliwatts which suffice to meet node energy demands. The usage of harvesting modules in the aforementioned conditions makes the system less dependent on environmental temperatures as no batteries are used in nodes with harvesters--it may be also an advantage in economic terms. There is a second kind of nodes. They are battery powered (without kinetic energy harvesters), and are, therefore, dependent on temperature and battery replacements. In addition, their operation is constrained by duty cycles in order to extend node lifetime and, consequently, their autonomy. There is, in turn, a third type of nodes (hotspots) which can be static or mobile. They are also battery-powered, and are used to retrieve information from the network so that it is presented to users. The system operational chain starts at the kinetic-powered nodes broadcasting their own identifier. If an identifier is received at a battery-powered node, the latter stores it for its records. Later, as the recording node meets a hotspot, its full record of detections is transferred to the hotspot. Every detection registry comprises, at least, a node identifier and the position read from its GPS module by the battery-operated node previously to detection. The characteristics of the system presented make the aforementioned operation own certain particularities which are also studied. First, identifier transmissions are random as they depend on movements at kinetic modules--reindeer movements in our application. Not every movement suffices since it must overcome a certain energy threshold. Second, identifier transmissions may not be heard unless there is a battery-powered node in the surroundings. Third, battery-powered nodes do not poll continuously their GPS module, hence localization errors rise even more. Let's recall at this point that such behavior is tight to the aforementioned power saving policies to extend node lifetime. Last, some time is elapsed between the instant an identifier random transmission is detected and the moment the user is aware of such a detection: it takes some time to find a hotspot. Tracking is posed as a problem of a single kinetically-powered target and a population of battery-operated nodes with higher densities than before in localization. Since the latter provide their approximate positions as reference locations, the study is again focused on assessing the impact of such distorted references on performance. Unlike in localization, distance-estimation capabilities based on signal parameters are assumed in this problem. Three variants of the Kalman filter family are applied in this context: the regular Kalman filter, the alpha-beta filter, and the unscented Kalman filter. The study enclosed hereafter comprises both field tests and simulations. Field tests were used mainly to assess the challenges related to power supply and operation in extreme conditions as well as to model nodes and some aspects of their operation in the application scenario. These models are the basics of the simulations developed later. The overall system performance is analyzed according to three metrics: number of detections per kinetic node, accuracy, and latency. The links between these metrics and the operational conditions are also discussed and characterized statistically. Subsequently, such statistical characterization is used to forecast performance figures given specific operational parameters. In tracking, also studied via simulations, nonlinear relationships are found between accuracy and duty cycles and cluster sizes of battery-operated nodes. The solution presented may be more complex in terms of network structure than existing solutions based on GPS collars. However, its main gain lies on taking advantage of users' error tolerance to reduce costs and become more environmentally friendly by diminishing the potential amount of batteries that can be lost. Whether it is applicable or not depends ultimately on the conditions and requirements imposed by users' needs and operational environments, which is, as it has been explained, one of the topics of this Thesis.

Incorporación de escorias de aluminio en la fabricación de productos de Arcilla cocida

Las sociedades desarrolladas generan una gran cantidad de residuos, que necesitan una adecuada gestión. Esta problemática requiere, de este modo, una atención creciente por parte de la sociedad, debido a la necesidad de proteger el medio ambiente. En este sentido, los esfuerzos se centran en reducir al máximo la generación de residuos y buscar vías de aprovechamiento de aquellos que son inevitables, soluciones mucho más aconsejables desde el punto de vista técnico, ecológico y económico que su vertido o destrucción. Las industrias deben adoptar las medidas precisas para fomentar la reducción de estos residuos, desarrollar tecnologías limpias que permitan el ahorro de los recursos naturales que poseemos, y sobre todo buscar métodos de reutilización, reciclado, inertización y valorización de los residuos generados en su producción. La industria de la construcción es un campo muy receptivo para el desarrollo de nuevos materiales en los que incorporar estos residuos. La incorporación de diferentes residuos industriales en matrices cerámicas se plantea como una vía barata de fijar las diferentes especies metálicas presentes en transformación de rocas ornamentales, lodos de galvanización o metalúrgicos, etc. En todos los casos, la adición de estos residuos requiere su caracterización previa y la optimización de las condiciones de conformado y cocción en el caso de su incorporación a la arcilla cocida. Entre los residuos incorporados en materiales de construcción se encuentran las escorias de aluminio. La industria metalúrgica produce durante sus procesos de fusión diferentes tipos de escorias. Su reciclado es una de las líneas de interés para estas industrias. En el caso de las escorias de aluminio, su tratamiento inicial consiste en una recuperación del aluminio mediante métodos mecánicos seguido de un tratamiento químico, o plasma. Este método conduce a que la escoria final apenas contenga aluminio y sea rica en sales solubles lo que limita su almacenamiento en escombreras. La escoria es una mezcla de aluminio metal y productos no metálicos como óxidos, nitruros y carburos de aluminio, sales y otros óxidos metálicos. En este estudio se ha analizado la posibilidad de la adición de escorias de aluminio procedentes de la metalurgia secundaria en materiales de construcción, de forma que tras un procesado de las mismas permita la obtención de materiales compuestos de matriz cerámica. En la presente Tesis Doctoral se ha analizado la viabilidad técnica de la incorporación de las escorias de aluminio procedentes de la metalurgia secundaria en una matriz de arcilla cocida. Para ello se han aplicado diferentes tratamientos a la escoria y se han aplicado diferentes variables en su procesado como la energía de molienda o la temperatura de sinterizacion, además del contenido de escoria. Su compactación con agua entre el 5-10 %, secado y sinterización permite obtener piezas rectangulares de diverso tamaño. Desde el punto de vista del contenido de la escoria, se incorporó entre un 10 y 40% de escoria TT, es decir sometida una calcinación previa a 750ºC en aire. Los mejores resultados alcanzados corresponden a un contenido del 20% ESC TT, sinterizada a 980ºC, por cuanto altos contenidos en escoria condicen a piezas con corazón negro. Los productos obtenidos con la adición de 20% de escoria de aluminio a la arcilla, presentan una baja expansión tras sinterización, mejores propiedades físicas y mecánicas, y mayor conductividad térmica que los productos obtenidos con arcilla sin adiciones. Aumenta su densidad, disminuye su absorción y aumenta sus resistencias de flexión y compresión, al presentar una porosidad cerrada y una interacción escoria-matriz. En todos los casos se produce una exudación superficial de aluminio metálico, cuyo volumen está relacionado con la cantidad de escoria adicionada. Mediante la incorporación de este contenido de escoria, tras un tratamiento de disolución de sales y posterior calcinación (ESC TTQ), se mejoran las propiedades del material compuesto, no sólo sobre la de la escoria calcinada (ESC TT), sino también, sobre la escoria sin tratamiento (ESC). Si además, la adición del 20% de escoria añadida, está tratada, no sólo térmicamente sino también químicamente (ESC TTQ), éstas mejoran aún más las propiedades del material compuesto, siendo el producto más compacto, con menos poros, por lo que los valores de densidad son más elevados, menores son las absorciones y mayores resistencias de flexión y compresión, que los productos obtenidos con la adición de escoria sólo tratada térmicamente. Alcanzando valores de resistencias características a compresión del orden de 109 MPa. Los valores de conductividad térmica obtenidos también son mayores. Los ensayos tecnológicos con piezas de 160 x 30 x 5 mm y el material compuesto optimizado de arcilla+ 20%ESCTTQ, consistieron en la determinación de su expansión por humedad, eflorescencia y heladicidad, mostrando en general un mejor comportamiento que la arcilla sin adiciones. Así, se han obtenido nuevos materiales compuestos de matriz cerámica para la construcción, mejorando sus propiedades físicas, mecánicas y térmicas, utilizando escorias de aluminio procedentes de la metalurgia secundaria, como opción de valorización de estos residuos, evitando así, que se viertan a vertederos y contaminen el medio ambiente. ABSTRACT Developed societies generate a lot of waste, which need proper management. Thus, this problem requires increased attention from the society, due to the need to protect the environment. In this regard, efforts are focused on to minimize the generation of waste and find ways of taking advantage of those who are inevitable, much more advisable solutions from the technical, ecological and economic viewpoint to disposal or destruction. Industries should adopt precise measures to promote waste reduction, develop clean technologies that allow the saving of natural resources that we possess, and above all seek methods of reuse, recycling, recovery and valorisation of the waste generated in their production. The industry of the construction is a very receptive field for the development of new materials in which to incorporate these residues. The incorporation of different industrial residues in ceramic counterfoils appears as a cheap route to fix the different metallic present species in transformation of ornamental rocks, muds of galvanization or metallurgical, etc. In all the cases, the addition of these residues needs his previous characterization and the optimization of the conditions of conformed and of baking in case of his incorporation to the baked clay. Residues incorporated into construction materials include aluminium slag. The metallurgical industry produces during their fusion processes different types of slags. Recycling is one of the lines of interest to these industries. In the case of aluminium slag, their initial treatment consists of a recovery of the aluminium using mechanical methods followed by chemical treatment, or plasma. This method leads to that final slag just contains aluminium and is rich in soluble salts which limits storage in dumps. The slag is a mixture of aluminium metal and non-metallic such as oxides, nitrides and carbides of aluminium salts products and other metal oxides. The present Doctoral thesis has analysed the technical viability of the incorporation of aluminium slag from secondary Metallurgy in an array of baked clay. So they have been applied different treatments to the slag and have been applied different variables in its processing as the temperature of sintering, in addition to the content of slag or energy grinding. Its compaction with water between 5-10%, drying and sintering allows rectangular pieces of different size. From the point of view of the content of the slag, it is incorporated between 10 and 40% slag TT, that is to say, submitted a calcination prior to 750 ° C in air. The best results achieved correspond to 20% ESC TT, sintered at 980 ° C, as high levels of slag in accordance to pieces with black heart. The products obtained with the addition of 20% of slag from aluminium to clay, present a low expansion after sintering, better physical properties and mechanical, and higher thermal conductivity than the products obtained with clay, without addictions. Its density increases, decreases its absorption and increases its resistance to bending and compression, introducing a closed porosity and slag-matrix interaction. In all cases there is a superficial exudation of metallic aluminium, whose volume is related to the amount of slag added. By incorporating this content of slag, following a treatment of salt solution and subsequent calcination (ESC TTQ), are improved the properties of composite material not only on the calcined slag (ESC TT), but also in the slag without treatment (ESC). If the addition of 20% of slag added, is also treated, not only thermally but also chemically (ESC TTQ), they further improve the properties of the composite material, the product is more compact, less porous, so the values are higher density, minors are absorptions and greater resistance in bending and compression, to the products obtained with the addition of slag only treated thermally. Reaching values of compressive resistance characteristic of the order of 109 MPa. The thermal conductivity values obtained are also higher. Testing technology with pieces of 160 x 30 x 5 mm and optimized composite material of clay 20% ESCTTQ, consisted in the determination of its expansion by moisture, efflorescence and frost resistance, in general, showing a better performance than the clay without additions. Thus, we have obtained new ceramic matrix composite materials for construction, improving its physical, mechanical and thermal properties, using aluminium slag secondary metallurgy, as an option Valuation of these wastes, thus preventing them from being poured to landfills and pollute environment.

The Responses of Cytochrome Redox State and Energy Metabolism to Dehydration Support a Role for Cytoplasmic Viscosity in Desiccation Tolerance1

To characterize the depression of metabolism in anhydrobiotes, the redox state of cytochromes and energy metabolism were studied during dehydration of soaked cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) cotyledons and pollens of Typha latifolia and Impatiens glandulifera. Between water contents (WC) of 1.0 and 0.6 g H2O/g dry weight (g/g), viscosity as measured by electron spin resonance spectroscopy increased from 0.15 to 0.27 poise. This initial water loss was accompanied by a 50% decrease in respiration rates, whereas the adenylate energy charge remained constant at 0.8, and cytochrome c oxidase (COX) remained fully oxidized. From WC of 0.6 to 0.2 g/g, viscosity increased exponentially. The adenylate energy charge declined to 0.4 in seeds and 0.2 in pollen, whereas COX became progressively reduced. At WC of less than 0.2 g/g, COX remained fully reduced, whereas respiration ceased. When dried under N2, COX remained 63% reduced in cotyledons until WC was 0.7 g/g and was fully reduced at 0.2 g/g. During drying under pure O2, the pattern of COX reduction was similar to that of air-dried tissues, although the maximum reduction was 70% in dried tissues. Thus, at WC of less than 0.6 g/g, the reduction of COX probably originates from a decreased O2 availability as a result of the increased viscosity and impeded diffusion. We suggest that viscosity is a valuable parameter to characterize the relation between desiccation and decrease in metabolism. The implications for desiccation tolerance are discussed.

High resolution ultrastructural mapping of total calcium: electron spectroscopic imaging/electron energy loss spectroscopy analysis of a physically/chemically processed nerve-muscle preparation.

We report on a procedure for tissue preparation that combines thoroughly controlled physical and chemical treatments: quick-freezing and freeze-drying followed by fixation with OsO4 vapors and embedding by direct resin infiltration. Specimens of frog cutaneous pectoris muscle thus prepared were analyzed for total calcium using electron spectroscopic imaging/electron energy loss spectroscopy (ESI/EELS) approach. The preservation of the ultrastructure was excellent, with positive K/Na ratios revealed in the fibers by x-ray microanalysis. Clear, high-resolution EELS/ESI calcium signals were recorded from the lumen of terminal cisternae of the sarcoplasmic reticulum but not from longitudinal cisternae, as expected from previous studies carried out with different techniques. In many mitochondria, calcium was below detection whereas in others it was appreciable although at variable level. Within the motor nerve terminals, synaptic vesicles as well as some cisternae of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum yielded positive signals at variance with mitochondria, that were most often below detection. Taken as a whole, the present study reveals the potential of our experimental approach to map with high spatial resolution the total calcium within individual intracellular organelles identified by their established ultrastructure, but only where the element is present at high levels.

Energy consumption in an urban wastewater treatment plant: the case of Murcia Region (Spain)

Of all the costs associated with the operation and maintenance of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), those associated with energy use tend to be the most significant. From this point of view, it is hence logical that energy efficiency and saving strategies should be one of the current focuses of debate amongst those involved with the management of WWTPs. The present study's objective is to determine the correlation between size and energy consumption for a WWTP. To this end, 90 WWTPs currently in service were analysed and their energetic impact quantified in terms of kWh/m3 of water treated. The results obtained demonstrate that energy consumption ratio increases as the size of WWTPs decreases, either in terms of treatment volume or population equivalent served.

Solar Crop Drying Conference, June 30, 1977, Weaver Laboratories, North Carolina State University at Raleigh : proceedings /

"Work performed under contract no. EX-76-A-29-1021."

The drying of sewage sludge by immersion frying

The objective of this work was to dry sewage sludge using a fry-drying process. The frying experiments were carried out in commercial fryers modified by adding thermocouples to the setup. During frying, typical drying curves were obtained and it was verified that, in relation to the parameters: oil temperature, oil type and shape of the sample, the shape factor the most effect on the drying rate, at least within the range chosen for the variables studied. Oil uptake and calorific value were also analyzed. The calorific value of the samples increased with frying time, reaching values around 24MJ/kg after 600s of frying (comparable to biocombustibles such as wood and sugarcane bagasse). The process of immersion frying showed great potential for drying materials, especially sewage sludge, obtaining a product with a high energy content, thereby increasing its value as a combustible.

Relating the stickiness property of foods undergoing drying and dried products to their surface energetics

Stickiness is a common problem encountered in food handling and processing, and also during consumption. Stickiness is observed as adhesion of the food to processing equipment surfaces or cohesion within the food particulate or mass. An important operation where this undesirable behavior of food is manifested is drying. This occurs particularly during drying of high-sugar and high-fat foods. To date, the stickiness of foods during drying or dried powder has been investigated in relation to their viscous and glass transition properties. The importance of contact surface energy of the equipment has been ignored in many analyses, despite the fact that some drying operations have reported using low-energy contact surfaces in drying equipment to avoid the problems caused by stickiness. This review discusses the fundamentals of adhesion and cohesion mechanisms and relates these phenomena to drying and dried products.

Estimation of concentration-dependent diffusion coefficient in drying process from the space-averaged concentration versus time with experimental data

The estimation of a concentration-dependent diffusion coefficient in a drying process is known as an inverse coefficient problem. The solution is sought wherein the space-average concentration is known as function of time (mass loss monitoring). The problem is stated as the minimization of a functional and gradient-based algorithms are used to solve it. Many numerical and experimental examples that demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed approach are presented. Thin slab drying was carried out in an isothermal drying chamber built in our laboratory. The diffusion coefficients of fructose obtained with the present method are compared with existing literature results.

Energy conservation in the steel industry

The last few years have witnessed an unprecedented increase in the price of energy available to industry in the United Kingdom and worldwide. The steel industry, as a major consumer of energy delivered in U.K. (8% of national total and nearly 25% of industrial total) and whose energy costs currently form some 28% of the total manufacturing cost, is very much aware of the need to conserve energy. Because of the complexities of steelmaking processes it is imperative that a full understanding of each process and its interlinking role in an integrated steelworks is understood. An analysis of energy distribution shows that as much as 70% of heat input is dissipated to the environment in a variety of forms. Of these, waste gases offer the best potential for energy conservation. The study identifies areas for and discusses novel methods of energy conservation in each process. Application of these schemes in BSC works is developed and their economic incentives highlighted. A major part of this thesis describes design, development and testing of a novel ceramic rotary regenerator for heat recovery from high temperature waste gases, where no such system is available. The regenerator is a compact, efficient heat exchanger. Application of such a system to a reheating furnace provides a fuel saving of up to 40%. A mathematical model developed is verified on the pilot plant. The results obtained confirm the success of the concept and material selection and outlines the work needed to develop an industrial unit. Last, but not least, the key position of an energy manager in an energy conservation programme is identified and a new Energy Management Model for the BSC is developed.

Analysis of transport costs for energy crops for use in biomass pyrolysis plant networks

Fast pyrolysis of biomass produces a liquid bio-oil that can be used for electricity generation. Bio-oil can be stored and transported so it is possible to decouple the pyrolysis process from the generation process. This allows each process to be separately optimised. It is necessary to have an understanding of the transport costs involved in order to carry out techno-economic assessments of combinations of remote pyrolysis plants and generation plants. Published fixed and variable costs for freight haulage have been used to calculate the transport cost for trucks running between field stores and a pyrolysis plant. It was found that the key parameter for estimating these costs was the number of round trips a day a truck could make rather than the distance covered. This zone costing approach was used to estimate the transport costs for a range of pyrolysis plants size for willow woodchips and baled miscanthus. The possibility of saving transport costs by producing bio-oil near to the field stores and transporting the bio-oil to a central plant was investigated and it was found that this would only be cost effective for large generation plants.

Drying of biomass for second generation synfuel production

Drying is a major and challenging step in the pre-treatment of biomass for production of second generation synfuels for transport. The biomass feedstocks are mostly wet and need to be dried from 30 to 60 wt% moisture content to about 10-15 wt%. The present survey aims to define and evaluate a few of the most promising optimised concepts for biomass pre-treatment scheme in the production of second generation synfuels for transport. The most promising commercially available drying processes were reviewed, focusing on the applications, operational factors and emissions of dryers. The most common dryers applied now for biomass in bio-energy plants are direct rotary dryers, but the use of steam drying techniques is increasing. Steam drying systems enable the integration of the dryer to existing energy sources. In addition to integration, emissions and fire or explosion risks have to be considered when selecting a dryer for the plant. In steam drying there will be no gaseous emissions, but the aqueous effluents need often treatment. Concepts for biomass pre-treatment were defined for two different cases including a large-scale wood-based gasification synfuel production and a small-scale pyrolysis process based on wood chips and miscanthus bundles. For the first case a pneumatic conveying steam dryer was suggested. In the second case the flue gas will be used as drying medium in a direct or indirect rotary dryer.

Energy efficient radio access architectures for green radio:large versus small cell size deployment

In this paper new architectural approaches that improve the energy efficiency of a cellular radio access network (RAN) are investigated. The aim of the paper is to characterize both the energy consumption ratio (ECR) and the energy consumption gain (ECG) of a cellular RAN when the cell size is reduced for a given user density and service area. The paper affirms that reducing the cell size reduces the cell ECR as desired while increasing the capacity density but the overall RAN energy consumption remains unchanged. In order to trade the increase in capacity density with RAN energy consumption, without degrading the cell capacity provision, a sleep mode is introduced. In sleep mode, cells without active users are powered-off, thereby saving energy. By combining a sleep mode with a small-cell deployment architecture, the paper shows that the ECG can be increased by the factor n = (R/R) while the cell ECR continues to decrease with decreasing cell size.

Desalination of brackish water by a batch reverse osmosis desalink system for use with solar thermal energy

For remote, semi-arid areas, brackish groundwater (BW) desalination powered by solar energy may serve as the most technically and economically viable means to alleviate the water stresses. For such systems, high recovery ratio is desired because of the technical and economical difficulties of concentrate management. It has been demonstrated that the current, conventional solar reverse osmosis (RO) desalination can be improved by 40–200 times by eliminating unnecessary energy losses. In this work, a batch-RO system that can be powered by a thermal Rankine cycle has been developed. By directly recycling high pressure concentrates and by using a linkage connection to provide increasing feed pressures, the batch-RO has been shown to achieve a 70% saving in energy consumption compared to a continuous single-stage RO system. Theoretical investigations on the mass transfer phenomena, including dispersion and concentration polarization, have been carried out to complement and to guide experimental efforts. The performance evaluation of the batch-RO system, named DesaLink, has been based on extensive experimental tests performed upon it. Operating DesaLink using compressed air as power supply under laboratory conditions, a freshwater production of approximately 300 litres per day was recorded with a concentration of around 350 ppm, whilst the feed water had a concentration range of 2500–4500 ppm; the corresponding linkage efficiency was around 40%. In the computational aspect, simulation models have been developed and validated for each of the subsystems of DesaLink, upon which an integrated model has been realised for the whole system. The models, both the subsystem ones and the integrated one, have been demonstrated to predict accurately the system performance under specific operational conditions. A simulation case study has been performed using the developed model. Simulation results indicate that the system can be expected to achieve a water production of 200 m3 per year by using a widely available evacuated tube solar collector having an area of only 2 m2. This freshwater production would satisfy the drinking water needs of 163 habitants in the Rajasthan region, the area for which the case study was performed.