Diseño, optimización y análisis de sistemas basados en técnicas láser, para el modelado geométrico, registro y documentación, aplicados a entidades de interés patrimonial.

El objetivo de la presente tesis doctoral es el desarrollo e implementación de un sistema para mejorar la metodología de extracción de la información geométrica necesaria asociada a los procesos de documentación de entidades de interés patrimonial, a partir de la información proporcionada por el empleo de sensores láser, tanto aéreos como terrestres. Para ello, inicialmente se realiza una presentación y justificación de los antecedentes y la problemática en el registro de información geométrica para el patrimonio, detallando todos aquellos sistemas de registro y análisis de la información geométrica utilizados en la actualidad. Este análisis permitirá realizar la comparación con los sistemas de registro basados en técnicas láser, aportando sugerencias de utilización para cada caso concreto. Posteriormente, se detallan los sistemas de registro basados en técnicas láser, comenzando por los sensores aerotransportados y concluyendo con el análisis pormenorizado de los sensores terrestres, tanto en su aplicación en modo estático como móvil. Se exponen las características técnicas y funcionamiento de cada uno de ellos, así como los ámbitos de aplicación y productos generados. Se analizan las fuentes de error que determinan la precisión que puede alcanzar el sistema. Tras la exposición de las características de los sistemas LiDAR, se detallan los procesos a realizar con los datos extraídos para poder generar la información necesaria para los diferentes tipos de objetos analizados. En esta exposición, se hace hincapié en los posibles riesgos que pueden ocurrir en algunas fases delicadas y se analizarán los diferentes algoritmos de filtrado y clasificación de los puntos, fundamentales en el procesamiento de la información LiDAR. Seguidamente, se propone una alternativa para optimizar los modelos de procesamiento existentes, basándose en el desarrollo de algoritmos nuevos y herramientas informáticas que mejoran el rendimiento en la gestión de la información LiDAR. En la implementación, se han tenido en cuenta características y necesidades particulares de la documentación de entidades de interés patrimonial, así como los diferentes ámbitos de utilización del LiDAR, tanto aéreo como terrestre. El resultado es un organigrama de las tareas a realizar desde la nube de puntos LiDAR hasta el cálculo de los modelos digitales del terreno y de superficies. Para llevar a cabo esta propuesta, se han desarrollado hasta 19 algoritmos diferentes que comprenden implementaciones para el modelado en 2.5D y 3D, visualización, edición, filtrado y clasificación de datos LiDAR, incorporación de información de sensores pasivos y cálculo de mapas derivados, tanto raster como vectoriales, como pueden ser mapas de curvas de nivel y ortofotos. Finalmente, para dar validez y consistencia a los desarrollos propuestos, se han realizado ensayos en diferentes escenarios posibles en un proceso de documentación del patrimonio y que abarcan desde proyectos con sensores aerotransportados, proyectos con sensores terrestres estáticos a media y corta distancia, así como un proyecto con un sensor terrestre móvil. Estos ensayos han permitido definir los diferentes parámetros necesarios para el adecuado funcionamiento de los algoritmos propuestos. Asimismo, se han realizado pruebas objetivas expuestas por la ISPRS para la evaluación y comparación del funcionamiento de algoritmos de clasificación LiDAR. Estas pruebas han permitido extraer datos de rendimiento y efectividad del algoritmo de clasificación presentado, permitiendo su comparación con otros algoritmos de prestigio existentes. Los resultados obtenidos han constatado el funcionamiento satisfactorio de la herramienta. Esta tesis está enmarcada dentro del proyecto Consolider-Ingenio 2010: “Programa de investigación en tecnologías para la valoración y conservación del patrimonio cultural” (ref. CSD2007-00058) realizado por el Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas y la Universidad Politécnica de Madrid. ABSTRACT: The goal of this thesis is the design, development and implementation of a system to improve the extraction of useful geometric information in Heritage documentation processes. This system is based on information provided by laser sensors, both aerial and terrestrial. Firstly, a presentation of recording geometric information for Heritage processes is done. Then, a justification of the background and problems is done too. Here, current systems for recording and analyzing the geometric information are studied. This analysis will perform the comparison with the laser system techniques, providing suggestions of use for each specific case. Next, recording systems based on laser techniques are detailed. This study starts with airborne sensors and ends with terrestrial ones, both in static and mobile application. The technical characteristics and operation of each of them are described, as well as the areas of application and generated products. Error sources are also analyzed in order to know the precision this technology can achieve. Following the presentation of the LiDAR system characteristics, the processes to generate the required information for different types of scanned objects are described; the emphasis is on the potential risks that some steps can produce. Moreover different filtering and classification algorithms are analyzed, because of their main role in LiDAR processing. Then, an alternative to optimize existing processing models is proposed. It is based on the development of new algorithms and tools that improve the performance in LiDAR data management. In this implementation, characteristics and needs of the documentation of Heritage entities have been taken into account. Besides, different areas of use of LiDAR are considered, both air and terrestrial. The result is a flowchart of tasks from the LiDAR point cloud to the calculation of digital terrain models and digital surface models. Up to 19 different algorithms have been developed to implement this proposal. These algorithms include implementations for 2.5D and 3D modeling, viewing, editing, filtering and classification of LiDAR data, incorporating information from passive sensors and calculation of derived maps, both raster and vector, such as contour maps and orthophotos. Finally, in order to validate and give consistency to the proposed developments, tests in different cases have been executed. These tests have been selected to cover different possible scenarios in the Heritage documentation process. They include from projects with airborne sensors, static terrestrial sensors (medium and short distances) to mobile terrestrial sensor projects. These tests have helped to define the different parameters necessary for the appropriate functioning of the proposed algorithms. Furthermore, proposed tests from ISPRS have been tested. These tests have allowed evaluating the LiDAR classification algorithm performance and comparing it to others. Therefore, they have made feasible to obtain performance data and effectiveness of the developed classification algorithm. The results have confirmed the reliability of the tool. This investigation is framed within Consolider-Ingenio 2010 project titled “Programa de investigación en tecnologías para la valoración y conservación del patrimonio cultural” (ref. CSD2007-00058) by Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas and Universidad Politécnica de Madrid.

Downscaling of global solar irradiation in R

A methodology for downscaling solar irradiation from satellite-derived databases is described using R software. Different packages such as raster, parallel, solaR, gstat, sp and rasterVis are considered in this study for improving solar resource estimation in areas with complex topography, in which downscaling is a very useful tool for reducing inherent deviations in satellite-derived irradiation databases, which lack of high global spatial resolution. A topographical analysis of horizon blocking and sky-view is developed with a digital elevation model to determine what fraction of hourly solar irradiation reaches the Earth's surface. Eventually, kriging with external drift is applied for a better estimation of solar irradiation throughout the region analyzed. This methodology has been implemented as an example within the region of La Rioja in northern Spain, and the mean absolute error found is a striking 25.5% lower than with the original database.

Sight distance for traffic safety analysis using GIS

Sight distance is of major importance for road safety either when designing new roads or analysing the alignment of existing roads. It is essential that available sight distance in roads is long enough for emergency stops or overtaking manoeuvres. Also, it is vital for engineers/researchers that the tools used for that analysis are both powerful and intuitive. Based on ArcGIS, the application to be presented not only performs an exhaustive sight distance calculation, but allows an accurate analysis of 3D alignment, using all new tools, from a Digital Elevation Model and vehicle trajectory. The software has been successfully utilised to analyse several two-lane rural roads in Spain. In addition, the software produces thematic maps representing sight distance in which supplementary information about crashes, traffic flow, speed or design consistency could be included, allowing traffic safety studies.

Ice volume changes (1936-1990-2007) and ground-penetrating radar studies of Ariebreen, Hornsund, Spitsbergen

Ariebreen is a small (0.37 km2) valley glacier located in southern Spitsbergen. Our ground-penetrating radar surveys of the glacier show that it is less than 30 m thick on average, with a maximum thickness of 82 m, and it appears to be entirely cold. By analysing digital terrain models of the ice surface from different dates, we determine the area and volume changes during two periods, 1936-1990 and 1990-2007. The total ice volume of the glacier has decreased by 73% during the entire period 1936-2007, which is equivalent to a mean mass balance rate of -0.6190.17 m/yr w.eq. The glacier thinning rate has increased markedly between the first and second periods, from -0.5090.22 to -0.9590.17 m/yr w.eq.

Restauración virtual del patrimonio sonoro. Aplicación al antiguo rito hispánico

Una de las aplicaciones más interesantes de las tecnologías de Realidad Acústica Virtual es la posibilidad de recuperar el patrimonio cultural del sonido de los recintos históricos que se han perdido o cuyas características se han modificado a lo largo de los siglos. En este trabajo, las tecnologías de realidad acústica virtual se utilizan para tratar de reconstruir virtualmente el sonido producido en las actividades litúrgicas del antiguo rito hispánico. Bajo este nombre se conoce a la liturgia que celebraban los cristianos de la península ibérica hasta su prohibición, en favor del culto romano, a mediados del siglo XI. El rito hispánico -también conocido como rito visigótico-mozárabe- es una de las manifestaciones culturales más interesantes de la Alta Edad Media en occidente. Se trata de un patrimonio cultural desaparecido, tanto desde el punto de vista de las señales sonoras que lo integraban -ya que la mayoría de las melodías que conformaban el rito se han perdido- como desde el punto de vista de los espacios en los que se desarrollaba, debido a que las iglesias conservadas de la época han experimentado modificaciones a lo largo de los siglos que alteran sus condiciones acústicas con respecto a las que tenían en el periodo de vigencia de esta liturgia. Para llevar a cabo este proyecto, se han realizado modelos acústicos digitales de un grupo representativo de iglesias prerrománicas de la Península Ibérica en su estado primitivo. Se ha procurado que las iglesias seleccionadas representen la variedad de comportamientos acústicos esperables en este tipo de edificios. Con este objetivo, se han elegido cinco iglesias prerrománicas que presentan diferencias sustanciales en los parámetros que, a priori, van a influir en mayor manera a su comportamiento acústico: el volumen del recinto, la forma de la planta y el tipo de cubierta. El proceso de creación de los modelos acústicos digitales de las iglesias se ha dividido en dos fases: en la primera se han creado modelos de los edificios en su estado actual, que se han validado a partir de los datos obtenidos en mediciones acústicas realizadas in situ; a partir de los modelos validados de las iglesias en su estado actual, en la segunda fase se han generado los modelos acústicos digitales correspondientes al estado primitivo de las mismas, modificando los modelos anteriores de acuerdo con las hipótesis de reconstrucción propuestas en las investigaciones arqueológicas más recientes. Se han realizado grabaciones en cámara anecoica de una serie de piezas del repertorio original del canto mozárabe. Las grabaciones se han llevado a cabo con un array esférico compuesto por 32 micrófonos, con objeto de obtener información sobre la directividad de la emisión sonora de los cantantes, que se aplicará en las auralizaciones. Finalmente, se han realizado diversas auralizaciones, teniendo en cuenta diferentes configuraciones litúrgicas que eran usuales en este rito. ABSTRACT One of the most interesting applications of the Acoustic Virtual Reality technologies is the possibility to recover the cultural heritage of the sound of the historical sites that have been lost or whose characteristics have been modified through time. In this work, Acoustic Virtual Reality technologies are used to try to reconstruct virtually the sound produced in the liturgical activities of the Hispanic Rite. This is the name given to the liturgy celebrated by Christians of the Iberian Peninsula prior to the introduction of the Roman cult in the mid-eleventh century. The Hispanic Rite (also known as Visigothic or Mozarabic rite) is one of the most interesting cultural manifestations of the Middle Ages. It is a lost cultural heritage, both from the point of view of the sound signals that were used since the majority of the melodies that conformed the rite have been lost, and from the point of view of the spaces in which this liturgy was celebrated, because the churches preserved from that era have changed over the centuries altering its acoustic conditions respect to which they were in the period in which this liturgy was in effect. To carry out this project, acoustic models of a representative group of the pre-Romanesque churches in the Iberian Peninsula have been made in his primitive state. To select the sample of buildings to study, efforts have been made to ensure that the selected churches were representative of the range of expected acoustic behaviors in this type of buildings. Five churches have been selected, showing differences in the parameters that have the greatest influence on their acoustic behavior: the enclosure volume, the shape of the floor plan and the type of roof. The process of creating digital acoustic models of the churches has been divided into two phases. In the first phase acoustic models of the churches in its current state have been created. These models have been validated with the data obtained from in situ acoustic measurements. From the validated models of churches in its current state, in the second phase, changes in the acoustic models have been performed in order to represent the primitive state of the churches, according to the historical reconstruction hypothesis that have been proposed in the most recent archaeological investigations. Anechoic recordings of a series of pieces of the original Mozarabic Chant repertoire have been recorded. The recordings were made with a spherical array composed of 32 microphones, in order to obtain information on the directivity of the sound emission of the singers. These directivity data will be used to simulate the directional radiation of the sound sources in the auralizations. Finally, auralizations were produced corresponding to different liturgical configurations which were common in this rite.

Surface fitting in geomorphology - examples for regular-shaped volcanic landforms

In nature, several types of landforms have simple shapes: as they evolve they tend to take on an ideal, simple geometric form such as a cone, an ellipsoid or a paraboloid. Volcanic landforms are possibly the best examples of this ?ideal? geometry, since they develop as regular surface features due to the point-like (circular) or fissure-like (linear) manifestation of volcanic activity. In this paper, we present a geomorphometric method of fitting the ?ideal? surface onto the real surface of regular-shaped volcanoes through a number of case studies (Mt. Mayon, Mt. Somma, Mt. Semeru, and Mt. Cameroon). Volcanoes with circular, as well as elliptical, symmetry are addressed. For the best surface fit, we use the minimization library MINUIT which is made freely available by the CERN (European Organization for Nuclear Research). This library enables us to handle all the available surface data (every point of the digital elevation model) in a one-step, half-automated way regardless of the size of the dataset, and to consider simultaneously all the relevant parameters of the selected problem, such as the position of the center of the edifice, apex height, and cone slope, thanks to the highly performing adopted procedure. Fitting the geometric surface, along with calculating the related error, demonstrates the twofold advantage of the method. Firstly, we can determine quantitatively to what extent a given volcanic landform is regular, i.e. how much it follows an expected regular shape. Deviations from the ideal shape due to degradation (e.g. sector collapse and normal erosion) can be used in erosion rate calculations. Secondly, if we have a degraded volcanic landform, whose geometry is not clear, this method of surface fitting reconstructs the original shape with the maximum precision. Obviously, in addition to volcanic landforms, this method is also capable of constraining the shapes of other regular surface features such as aeolian, glacial or periglacial landforms.

Spatial analysis of geometric design consistency and road sight distance

Because of the high number of crashes occurring on highways, it is necessary to intensify the search for new tools that help in understanding their causes. This research explores the use of a geographic information system (GIS) for an integrated analysis, taking into account two accident-related factors: design consistency (DC) (based on vehicle speed) and available sight distance (ASD) (based on visibility). Both factors require specific GIS software add-ins, which are explained. Digital terrain models (DTMs), vehicle paths, road centerlines, a speed prediction model, and crash data are integrated in the GIS. The usefulness of this approach has been assessed through a study of more than 500 crashes. From a regularly spaced grid, the terrain (bare ground) has been modeled through a triangulated irregular network (TIN). The length of the roads analyzed is greater than 100 km. Results have shown that DC and ASD could be related to crashes in approximately 4% of cases. In order to illustrate the potential of GIS, two crashes are fully analyzed: a car rollover after running off road on the right side and a rear-end collision of two moving vehicles. Although this procedure uses two software add-ins that are available only for ArcGIS, the study gives a practical demonstration of the suitability of GIS for conducting integrated studies of road safety.

Modelos digitales del terreno mediante fotogrametría aérea realizada con un vehículo aéreo no tripulado

En las últimas décadas, el avance tecnológico ha aumentado a una velocidad vertiginosa. Muchos son los campos beneficiados, entre ellos la ingeniería y por consiguiente el desarrollo de maquinaria, técnicas y herramientas que facilitan el trabajo. Los vehículos aéreos no tripulados (UAVs), más conocidos como drones, se presentan como una alternativa muy interesante para llevar a cabo levantamientos topográficos mediante la técnica fotogramétrica. En este proyecto se desarrollan los Modelos Digitales del Terreno (MDT) de una superficie sobrevolada por un UAV en la localidad de Cubillos del Sil (León). Para ello, se han utilizado dos software: Mission Planner y PhotoModeler. En el primero se ha llevado a cabo la programación de la misión de vuelo del drone, siendo el fin la toma de fotografías aéreas. El segundo es el encargado de realizar la reconstrucción digital en 3D del terreno sobrevolado a partir de esas fotografías. El objetivo final es que los MDT obtenidos puedan ser utilizados en un futuro por cualquier equipo de trabajo que quiera desarrollar un proyecto sobre esos terrenos. ABSTRACT The pace of technology innovation is faster now than it has been for the past few decades. Engineering, and consequently machinery and diverse techniques, are the main beneficiaries. A clear example of this is the development of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), more commonly known as drones. They are a very good alternative that can be used to carry out topographic surveys through photogrammetry. In this project the Digital Terrain Models (DTM) of an overflown area in the municipality of Cubillos del Sil (León) are developed. Two main pieces of software have been used for this purpose; Mission Planner and PhotoModeler. Programming of the drone flight mission was done with the former, allowing it to take aerial pictures, whilst the latter was used to digitally rebuild the overflown area in 3D, using the pictures from the first piece of software. The final aim of the project is to make the obtained DTM available for any future project.

Aplicación lectora de datos públicos sobre DNIE

Con la llegada de la era de la información, viendo esta era como la necesidad de informatizar, registrar y tratar una gran cantidad de datos mediante la tecnología, se está dando el paso de diversos procesos burocráticos a medios tecnológicos cambiando el papel por los datos almacenados en las computadoras. El DNI electrónico permite a un individuo identificarse mediante un dispositivo donde se almacenan los datos de éste para poder identificarse unívocamente ante aquellos trámites que antaño costaban largos procesos burocráticos en papel. Sabemos que las aplicaciones software son aquellos módulos formado por un conjunto de programas y rutinas que permiten a los diferentes tipos de computadores realizar tareas de manera parcial o totalmente automáticas. Por ello este proyecto demuestra todo el proceso de creación de un módulo software, que cómo comentamos en el primer párrafo, permitiría sobrellevar otros tantos procesos burocráticos como sería la petición del DNI y posterior escritura a mano en distintas situaciones. Todo ello orientado desde un estricto análisis desde el punto de vista de la ingeniería del software. ABSTRACT Due to the fact that we’re in the era of information technology, and from the perspective that this era means to computerize register and treat a big quantity of data through technologic means, we are stepping into a process where all the bureaucracy is being transferred from paper to digital storage models. Hence, the electronic DNI allows the citizen to identify himself univocally against processes that back in time where made through tedious and heavy-paper-work processes. We know that software apps are modules conformed by a set of instructions and programs that make possible the execution of partially or totally automated tasks. That’s why this project shows the process of the creation of a software module (app) that, as we stated before, would allow overcoming many other bureaucratic processes like the request to write down the national identification number. All of it focused to a strict analysis from software engineering’s point of view.

A GIS-based methodology to quantitatively define an Adjacent Protected Area in a shallow karst cavity: The case of Altamira cave

Different types of land use are usually present in the areas adjacent to many shallow karst cavities. Over time, the increasing amount of potentially harmful matter and energy, of mainly anthropic origin or influence, that reaches the interior of a shallow karst cavity can modify the hypogeal ecosystem and increase the risk of damage to the Palaeolithic rock art often preserved within the cavity. This study proposes a new Protected Area status based on the geological processes that control these matter and energy fluxes into the Altamira cave karst system. Analysis of the geological characteristics of the shallow karst system shows that direct and lateral infiltration, internal water circulation, ventilation, gas exchange and transmission of vibrations are the processes that control these matter and energy fluxes into the cave. This study applies a comprehensive methodological approach based on Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to establish the area of influence of each transfer process. The stratigraphic and structural characteristics of the interior of the cave were determined using 3D Laser Scanning topography combined with classical field work, data gathering, cartography and a porosity–permeability analysis of host rock samples. As a result, it was possible to determine the hydrogeological behavior of the cave. In addition, by mapping and modeling the surface parameters it was possible to identify the main features restricting hydrological behavior and hence direct and lateral infiltration into the cave. These surface parameters included the shape of the drainage network and a geomorphological and structural characterization via digital terrain models. Geological and geomorphological maps and models integrated into the GIS environment defined the areas involved in gas exchange and ventilation processes. Likewise, areas that could potentially transmit vibrations directly into the cave were identified. This study shows that it is possible to define a Protected Area by quantifying the area of influence related to each transfer process. The combined maximum area of influence of all the processes will result in the new Protected Area. This area will thus encompass all the processes that account for most of the matter and energy carried into the cave and will fulfill the criteria used to define the Protected Area. This methodology is based on the spatial quantification of processes and entities of geological origin and can therefore be applied to any shallow karst system that requires protection.

The Big BIM battle: BIM adoption in the UK for large and small companies

As BIM adoption continues, the goal of a totally collaborative model with multiple contributors is attainable. Many initiatives such as the 2016 UK government level 2 BIM deadline are putting pressure on the construction industry to speed up the changeover. Clients and collaborators have higher expectations of using digital 3D models to communicate design ideas and solve practical problems. Contractors and clients are benefitting from cost saving scheduling and clash detection offered by BIM. Effective collaboration on the project will also give speed and efficiency gains. Despite this, many businesses of varying sizes are still having problems. The cost of the software and the training provides an obvious barrier for micro-enterprises and could explain a delay in adoption. Many studies have looked at these problems faced by SME and micro-enterprises. Larger companies have different problems. The efforts made by government to encourage them are quite comprehensive, but is anything being done to help smaller sectors and keep the industry cohesive? This limited study examines several companies of varying size and varying project type: architectural design businesses, main contractor, structural engineer and building consultancy. The study examines the barriers to a truly collaborative BIM workflow facing different specialities on a larger project and a contrasting small/medium project. The findings will establish that different barriers for each sector are actually pushing further apart, thus potentially creating a BIM-only construction elite, leaving the small companies remaining on 2D based drawing.

Terrain Controls and Landscape-Scale Susceptibility Modelling of Active-Layer Detachments, Sabine Peninsula, Melville Island, Nunavut

Modelling the susceptibility of permafrost slopes to disturbance can identify areas at risk to future disturbance and result in safer infrastructure and resource development in the Arctic. In this study, we use terrain attributes derived from a digital elevation model, an inventory of permafrost slope disturbances known as active-layer detachments (ALDs) and generalised additive modelling to produce a map of permafrost slope disturbance susceptibility for an area on northern Melville Island, in the Canadian High Arctic. By examining terrain variables and their relative importance, we identified factors important for initiating slope disturbance. The model was calibrated and validated using 70 and 30 per cent of a data-set of 760 mapped ALDs, including disturbed and randomised undisturbed samples. The generalised additive model calibrated and validated very well, with areas under the receiver operating characteristic curve of 0.89 and 0.81, respectively, demonstrating its effectiveness at predicting disturbed and undisturbed samples. ALDs were most likely to occur below the marine limit on slope angles between 3 and 10° and in areas with low values of potential incoming solar radiation (north-facing slopes).

TIC em hospitais privados: estudo do uso, do custo e da integração

A tese estuda e analisa as Tecnologias da Informação e Comunicação (TIC) disponíveis em hospitais no Brasil, associados à ANAHP – Associação Nacional de Hospitais Privados que patrocinou a coleta de dados e apoiou a pesquisa com dois temas centrais: uso e custo; integração e interoperabilidade das TIC. A Organização para a Cooperação e Desenvolvimento Econômico (OECD), em estudo sobre TIC em saúde, afirmou que, se implantadas de maneira eficiente, as TIC podem resultar em melhoria da qualidade na prestação de serviços de saúde, aumento da segurança no atendimento ao paciente e custos menores. Para permitir a comparação de resultados e o uso de modelos de pesquisa confiáveis, este estudo adaptou o Modelo de Pesquisa de Uso de TI utilizado pelo GVcia - Centro de Tecnologia da Informação Aplicada da FGV – EAESP e realizou uma complementação dos instrumentos de pesquisa para levantar dados específicos da integração das TIC em hospitais utilizando com referência uma pesquisa aplicada a hospitais norte-americanos. A coleta de dados foi realizada para o período 2009 a 2015 em duas etapas. Na primeira, foi enviado o questionário eletrônico, validado por executivos de hospitais e apresentado no apêndice A. Na segunda etapa, os dados enviados foram validados e aspectos da integração foram esclarecidos por meio de entrevistas. O estudo de custo e uso das TIC resultou no cálculo de diversos indicadores. Gastos e investimentos com TIC em hospitais privados atingiu a 3,5% do faturamento anual dos hospitais da amostra enquanto que o setor da saúde, por sua vez, gastou e investiu 6,4% do faturamento anual com as TIC que implementou. Outro indicador inédito e importante para futuros estudos no setor é o custo anual das TIC por leito hospitalar que permaneceu estável em torno de US$ 39.000 entre 2010 e 2014 e caiu para US$ 36.000 em 2015, valor equivalente a R$ 120.000 de dezembro de 2015. Outras estatísticas e indicadores apresentados no estudo ajudam a entender a evolução e o desempenho das TIC na prestação de serviços de saúde e poderão ser úteis para decidir se as TIC ajudarão a melhorar a segurança e atenção ao paciente, aos profissionais de saúde no acesso a dados do paciente, e a necessária sintonia com o Modelo da Saúde Digital (e-Saúde), a custos adequados. Os resultados do presente estudo são comparáveis aos americanos semelhantes e permitem inferir que o parque tecnológico em uso nos hospitais privados brasileiros poderá alavancar a integração de sistemas existentes, permitindo a sintonia com Modelos de Saúde Digital, com a melhoria de desempenho da cadeia estendida da saúde na atenção ao cidadão que poderá ser assistido onde estiver, a qualquer momento, com segurança. Ação gerencial e investimentos são os tópicos centrais que envolvem a integração.

Volume changes of Jacobshavn Isbrae between 1985, 1997 and 2007

Following three decades of relative stability, Jakobshavn Isbrae, West Greenland, underwent dramatic thinning, retreat and speed-up starting in 1998. To assess the amount of ice loss, we analyzed 1985 aerial photos and derived a 40 m grid digital elevation model (DEM). We also obtained a 2007 40 m grid SPOT DEM covering the same region. Comparison of the two DEMs over an area of ~4000 km**2 revealed a total ice loss of 160 ± 4 km**3, with 107 ± 0.2 km**3 in grounded regions (0.27 mm eustatic sea-level rise) and 53 ± 4 km**3 from the disintegration of the floating tongue. Comparison of the DEMs with 1997 NASA Airborne Topographic Mapper data indicates that this ice loss essentially occurred after 1997, with +0.7 ± 5.6 km**3 between 1985 and 1997 and -160 ± 7 km**3 between 1997 and 2007. The latter is equivalent to an average specific mass balance of -3.7 ± 0.2 m/a over the study area. Previously reported thickening of the main glacier during the early 1990s was accompanied by similar-magnitude thinning outside the areas of fast flow, indicating that the land-based ice continued reacting to longer-term climate forcing.

Geological map of Heimefrontfjella, Dronning Maud Land, Antarctica (Scale 1:250,000)

The geological overview map was compiled from 15 geological maps (1 : 25,000) and is based on Jacobs et al. 1996. The topographic basemaps were adapted from unpublished 1:250,000 provisional topographic maps, Institut f. Angewandte Geodäsie, Frankfurt, 1983. Part of the contour lines are from Radarsat (Liu et al. 2001).