A developmental dissociation of view-dependent and view-invariant object recognition in adolescence

Spatial generalization skills in school children aged 8-16 were studied with regard to unfamiliar objects that had been previously learned in a cross-modal priming and learning paradigm. We observed a developmental dissociation with younger children recognizing objects only from previously learnt perspectives whereas older children generalized acquired object knowledge to new viewpoints as well. Haptic and - to a lesser extent - visual priming improved spatial generalization in all but the youngest children. The data supports the idea of dissociable, view-dependent and view-invariant object representations with different developmental trajectories that are subject to modulatory effects of priming. Late-developing areas in the parietal or the prefrontal cortex may account for the retarded onset of view-invariant object recognition. © 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Anatomical correlates of dynamic auditory processing:relationship to literacy during early adolescence

Adults show great variation in their auditory skills, such as being able to discriminate between foreign speech-sounds. Previous research has demonstrated that structural features of auditory cortex can predict auditory abilities; here we are interested in the maturation of 2-Hz frequency-modulation (FM) detection, a task thought to tap into mechanisms underlying language abilities. We hypothesized that an individual's FM threshold will correlate with gray-matter density in left Heschl's gyrus, and that this function-structure relationship will change through adolescence. To test this hypothesis, we collected anatomical magnetic resonance imaging data from participants who were tested and scanned at three time points: at 10, 11.5 and 13 years of age. Participants judged which of two tones contained FM; the modulation depth was adjusted using an adaptive staircase procedure and their threshold was calculated based on the geometric mean of the last eight reversals. Using voxel-based morphometry, we found that FM threshold was significantly correlated with gray-matter density in left Heschl's gyrus at the age of 10 years, but that this correlation weakened with age. While there were no differences between girls and boys at Times 1 and 2, at Time 3 there was a relationship between gray-matter density in left Heschl's gyrus in boys but not in girls. Taken together, our results confirm that the structure of the auditory cortex can predict temporal processing abilities, namely that gray-matter density in left Heschl's gyrus can predict 2-Hz FM detection threshold. This ability is dependent on the processing of sounds changing over time, a skill believed necessary for speech processing. We tested this assumption and found that FM threshold significantly correlated with spelling abilities at Time 1, but that this correlation was found only in boys. This correlation decreased at Time 2, and at Time 3 we found a significant correlation between reading and FM threshold, but again, only in boys. We examined the sex differences in both the imaging and behavioral data taking into account pubertal stages, and found that the correlation between FM threshold and spelling was strongest pre-pubertally, and the correlation between FM threshold and gray-matter density in left Heschl's gyrus was strongest mid-pubertally.

Developmental trajectories of part-based and configural object recognition in adolescence.

Three experiments assessed the development of children's part and configural (part-relational) processing in object recognition during adolescence. In total, 312 school children aged 7-16 years and 80 adults were tested in 3-alternative forced choice (3-AFC) tasks. They judged the correct appearance of upright and inverted presented familiar animals, artifacts, and newly learned multipart objects, which had been manipulated either in terms of individual parts or part relations. Manipulation of part relations was constrained to either metric (animals, artifacts, and multipart objects) or categorical (multipart objects only) changes. For animals and artifacts, even the youngest children were close to adult levels for the correct recognition of an individual part change. By contrast, it was not until 11-12 years of age that they achieved similar levels of performance with regard to altered metric part relations. For the newly learned multipart objects, performance was equivalent throughout the tested age range for upright presented stimuli in the case of categorical part-specific and part-relational changes. In the case of metric manipulations, the results confirmed the data pattern observed for animals and artifacts. Together, the results provide converging evidence, with studies of face recognition, for a surprisingly late consolidation of configural-metric relative to part-based object recognition.

Earlier development of analytical than holistic object recognition in adolescence

Background. Previous research has shown that object recognition may develop well into late childhood and adolescence. The present study extends that research and reveals novel differences in holistic and analytic recognition performance in 7-12 year olds compared to that seen in adults. We interpret our data within a hybrid model of object recognition that proposes two parallel routes for recognition (analytic vs. holistic) modulated by attention. Methodology / Principal Findings. Using a repetition-priming paradigm, we found in Experiment 1 that children showed no holistic priming, but only analytic priming. Given that holistic priming might be thought to be more ‘primitive’, we confirmed in Experiment 2 that our surprising finding was not because children’s analytic recognition was merely a result of name repetition. Conclusions / Significance. Our results suggest a developmental primacy of analytic object recognition. By contrast, holistic object recognition skills appear to emerge with a much more protracted trajectory extending into late adolescence.

Developmental dissociation of analytical and holistic object recognition in adolescence

Previous research (e.g., Jüttner et al, 2013, Developmental Psychology, 49, 161-176) has shown that object recognition may develop well into late childhood and adolescence. The present study extends that research and reveals novel di erences in holistic and analytic recognition performance in 7-11 year olds compared to that seen in adults. We interpret our data within Hummel’s hybrid model of object recognition (Hummel, 2001, Visual Cognition, 8, 489-517) that proposes two parallel routes for recognition (analytic vs. holistic) modulated by attention. Using a repetition-priming paradigm, we found in Experiment 1 that children showed no holistic priming, but only analytic priming. Given that holistic priming might be thought to be more ‘primitive’, we confirmed in Experiment 2 that our surprising finding was not because children’s analytic recognition was merely a result of name repetition. Our results suggest a developmental primacy of analytic object recognition. By contrast, holistic object recognition skills appear to emerge with a much more protracted trajectory extending into late adolescence

Developmental commonalities between object and face recognition in adolescence

In the visual perception literature, the recognition of faces has often been contrasted with that of non-face objects, in terms of differences with regard to the role of parts, part relations and holistic processing. However, recent evidence from developmental studies has begun to blur this sharp distinction. We review evidence for a protracted development of object recognition that is reminiscent of the well-documented slow maturation observed for faces. The prolonged development manifests itself in a retarded processing of metric part relations as opposed to that of individual parts and offers surprising parallels to developmental accounts of face recognition, even though the interpretation of the data is less clear with regard to holistic processing. We conclude that such results might indicate functional commonalities between the mechanisms underlying the recognition of faces and non-face objects, which are modulated by different task requirements in the two stimulus domains.

Dissociation of detection and evaluation of facial expressions in adolescence

Holistic face perception, i.e. the mandatory integration of featural information across the face, hasbeen considered to play a key role when recognizing emotional face expressions (e.g., Tanaka et al.,2002). However, despite their early onset holistic processing skills continue to improvethroughout adolescence (e.g., Schwarzer et al., 2010) and therefore might modulate theevaluation of facial expressions. We tested this hypothesis using an attentional blink (AB)paradigm to compare the impact of happy, fearful and neutral faces in adolescents (10–13 years)and adults on subsequently presented neutral target stimuli (animals, plants and objects) in a rapidserial visual presentation stream. Adolescents and adults were found to be equally reliable whenreporting the emotional expression of the face stimuli. However, the detection of emotional butnot neutral faces imposed a significantly stronger AB effect on the detection of the neutral targetsin adults compared to adolescents. In a control experiment we confirmed that adolescents ratedemotional faces lower in terms of valence and arousal than adults. The results suggest a protracteddevelopment of the ability to evaluate facial expressions that might be attributed to the latematuration of holistic processing skills.

Fostering the development of identity and intimacy during late adolescence

This dissertation tested the effectiveness of a psychosocial intervention, the Personal Development in the Context of Relationships (PDCR) program. The aim of the PDCR seeks to foster the development (or enhancement) of a sense of identity and intimacy among adolescents who participate in the program. The PDCR is a psychosocial group intervention which utilizes interpersonal relationship issues as a context to foster personal development in identity formation and facilitate the development of an individual's capacity for intimacy. The PDCR uses intervention strategies which include skills and knowledge development, experiential group exercises, and exploration for insight. Participants consisted of 110 late adolescents. A mixed-subjects design (pre-post-follow up) was used to assess the effectiveness, efficacy and utility of the PDCR on the experimental condition relative to a content/social contact control group and a time control condition. Identity exploration and identity commitment were measured by the Ego Identity Process Questionnaire (EIPQ). Total intimacy and identity role satisfaction were measured by the Erikson Psychosocial Stage Inventory (EPSI). Relationship quality and closeness were measured by the Relationship Quality Scale (RQS) and the Relationship Closeness Inventory (RCI) in an effort to assess whether any potential impact on interpersonal relationships occurs. Mixed MANOVAs were used to analyze the data with results yielding significant values for increased total identity exploration from pre to post test and decreases in total identity commitment from pre to post to follow-up test in the experimental group relative to the control conditions on the EIPQ. Further results indicated increases in total intimacy from pre to post to follow-up test in the experimental group relative to the control conditions on the EPSI. No clear trends emerged from pre to post to follow-up test for the Relationship measures. Results are discussed in terms of both practical and theoretical implications. ^

Teacher-student relationships and the link to academic adjustment and emotional well-being in early adolescence

The role of support from teachers on the academic and emotional adjustment of a ethnically and economically diverse sample of adolescents was examined. Analyses were conducted on data from a larger study examining social networks across the transition to junior high school. Participants in the current study included 694 African-American, Hispanic-American and European-American students in grades 6 and 8 from public elementary schools in South Florida. Some of these schools are located in economically distressed areas and some are in middle income areas. Children were interviewed, and information on teacher social support resources, school stressors, risk and academic and emotional adjustment was obtained. Several significant findings emerged from the analyses. First, overall teacher support was a significant predictor of a wide range of academic and emotional adjustment outcomes. Second, teacher support compensated for low peer support on teacher rated behavior problems. Third, teacher support interacted with school stress to predict depressed affect and self esteem. Fourth, teacher support interacted with low ecological risk conditions to predict feelings of loneliness. ^

Sibling relations in preadolescence and adolescence: Compensatory and buffering effects

The current study is an examination of how support from siblings relates to psychological and academic well-being in preadolescence and adolescence in general, and the buffering and compensatory effects of sibling support in particular. Participants for the study were 694 African-American, European-American, and Hispanic-American students in grades 6 and 8. Participants were interviewed in school regarding their social support, ecological risk, and psychological well-being. Academic well-being was assessed using teacher reports and school records. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that greater brother support was associated with more positive school attitudes and with higher overall self-esteem. In addition, sister support moderated the relationship between ecological risk and school adaptation. In terms of a compensatory effect, students under low mother support conditions receiving greater support from brothers, and students under low friend support conditions receiving greater support from brothers exhibited higher school achievement. The potential benefits of sibling support warrant a closer examination of the wide ranging issues involved in sibling relations. ^

Longitudinal effects of family factors on alcohol use and alcohol-related problems among males from pre-adolescence to adulthood

The goal of this study was to examine the longitudinal effects of five family factors on alcohol use among adolescent males. The family factors included familism (family pride, loyalty, and cohesion), parent derogation (being put down by parents), parent/child communication, family alcohol problems and family drug problems. The study focused on the effects of the family factors reported by a sample of 451 White-non-Hispanic and African American males during early and mid-adolescence on (1) the intensity of alcohol use in mid-adolescence, and (2) the number of problems associated with alcohol use during the transition to young adulthood. The study also explored racial differences in the effects of the family factors. The data for this study were derived from a two-phase longitudinal epidemiologic cohort study of male and female adolescents enrolled in middle schools in Miami, FL. Data were collected at four points between 1990 and 2001. Linear and logistical regressions were used to analyze the effects of the family variables on the dependent variables. ^ The results of the analyses indicated that all of the family variables except family drug problems were statistically significant predictors of the level of alcohol use and alcohol-related problems. Familism had a moderate influence on both of the dependent variables at all data points, while parent derogation, parent/child communication and family alcohol problems were weak predictors. While the family factors varied by race, their impact on the dependent variables did not vary substantially. ^ This study had methodological shortcomings related to measurement and design that may have contributed to the weak influence of the variables. Future studies should explore possible mediating effects of these variables, and should employ more sensitive measures that are culturally appropriate. The results suggest that, since early family factors have long-term effects on children's substance-using behaviors, the family environment should be addressed in prevention and intervention efforts. ^

Compensatory effects of parent and peer support on well -being and achievement during pre- and early adolescence

The current study was designed to explore the salience of parent and peer support in middle childhood and early adolescence across two time periods as indicated by measures of achievement (grade point average (GPA), Stanford Achievement Test (SAT) scores and teacher rated school adaptation) and well-being (loneliness, depression, self-concept and teacher-rated internalizing behaviors). ^ Participants were part of an initial study on social network relations and school adaptation in middle childhood and early adolescence. Participants at Time 1 (in the spring of 1997) included 782 children in grades 4 and 6 of eight lower and middle income public elementary schools. Participants (N = 694) were reinterviewed two years later in the spring of 1999 (Time 2). ^ Multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVA) were used to investigate the change in salience of parent and peer support from Time 1 to Time 2. In addition, Tukey-HSD (Honestly Significant Difference) post hoc tests were used to test the significance of the differences among the means of four support categories: (1) low parent-low friend, (2) low parent-high friend, (3) high parent-low friend, and (4) high parent-high friend. ^ Compensatory effects were observed for loneliness and self-concept at Time 1, as well as for SAT scores, self-concept and overall achievement at Time 2. Results were consistent with existing findings that suggest a competitive model of parent/peer influence on achievement during adolescence. This study affirms the need for a more contextual approach to research examining competing and compensatory effects on adolescent development. ^

The influence of fathers and other significant male figures on girls' well -being and achievement in early adolescence

Changes in the demographic structure of American families have highlighted the need to reevaluate fatherhood. Research illustrates that paternal involvement positively affects child development, but father absence has increased due to rising rates of divorce, cohabitation, and non-marital childbirth. There is evidence that other male figures can function as effective father surrogates. However, information is limited, particularly with respect to female development. ^ This study examined differences in well-being, achievement, and paternal support among girls in four father categories: (a) Biological Father, (b) Step-Father, (c) Surrogate Father, and (d) No Father. Maternal support, economic hardship, and life stressors were included as potential covariates. Interviews were conducted with an ethnically and economically diverse sample of 694 sixth and eighth grade children. The sample included boys to assess the extent to which the findings were unique to girls. Measures included quantitative and qualitative support from father figures and indices of self-esteem, loneliness, and depression. Standardized test scores and classroom grades were also obtained from school records. ^ Girls with biological fathers had higher achievement test scores than girls in the other father categories, but there were no other differences related to the presence or absence of a father-figure. Biological fathers also provided greater quantitative and qualitative support than step- and surrogate fathers. Surrogate fathers provided a greater amount but lower quality of support than step-fathers. ^ Girls who received lower levels of support from biological fathers reported lower self-esteem and greater loneliness, compared to fatherless girls and those receiving low support from other father figures, suggesting that low support from biological fathers may be especially distressing. On the other hand, girls with low biological father support had higher achievement scores compared to fatherless girls and those who received low support from step- and surrogate fathers. Thus, the mere presence of the biological father appears to facilitate achievement, regardless of the level of support he provides. ^ This study highlights the supportive characteristics of different father figures and their influence on well-being and achievement in females. Future research should focus on the dynamics of surrogate father relationships and the specific characteristics that differentially affect developmental outcomes. ^

Within-Person Link between Depressed Affect and Moderate-to-Vigorous Physical Activity in Adolescence : An Intensive Longitudinal Approach

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Danijela Bacic, Hannah J€ockel, Lea K€ohler, Katrin Molsen, Marie Landenberger, and Annika Plambeck for their assistance with participant recruitment and data collection, Dale Esliger and Lauren Sherar for processing the accelerometry data, and Matthew Riccio for his helpful comments on the manuscript.