Creating a public tool to assess and promote transparency in global land deals: the experience of the Land Matrix

The Beta version of the Land Matrix (Land Matrix 2012) was launched in April 2012 as a tool to promote public participation in building a constantly evolving database on large-scale land deals, and making the data visible and understandable. The aim of the Land Matrix partnership is to promote transparency and open data in decisionmaking over land and investment, as a step towards greater accountability. Since its launch, the Land Matrix has attracted a high degree of attention, and stirred some controversy. It provides valuable lessons on the challenges and benefits of promoting open data on practices that are often shrouded in secrecy. This paper critically examines the ongoing efforts by the Land Matrix partnership to build a public tool to promote greater transparency in decision-making over land and investment at a global level. It intends to provoke discussion of the extent to which such a tool can ultimately promote greater transparency and be a step towards greater accountability and improved decision-making. It will present the Land Matrix and its value addition, before detailing the challenges it encountered related to the measurement of the largescale land acquisition phenomenon. It will then specify how it intends to address these issues in order to establish a dynamic and participatory tool for open development.

The Emotions: A Philosophical Introduction

The emotions are at the centre of our lives and, for better or worse, imbue them with much of their significance. The philosophical problems stirred up by the existence of the emotions, over which many great philosophers of the past have laboured, revolve around attempts to understand what this significance amounts to. Are emotions feelings, thoughts, or experiences? If they are experiences, what are they experiences of? Are emotions rational? In what sense do emotions give meaning to what surrounds us? The Emotions: A Philosophical Introduction introduces and explores these questions in a clear and accessible way. The authors discuss the following key topics: the diversity and unity of the emotions the relations between emotion, belief and desire the nature of values the relations between emotions and perceptions emotions viewed as evaluative attitudes the link between emotions and evaluative knowledge the nature of moods, sentiments, and character traits. Including chapter summaries and guides to further reading, The Emotions: A Philosophical Introduction is an ideal starting point for any philosopher or student studying the emotions. It will also be of interest to those in related disciplines such as psychology and the social sciences.

Animal Guts as Ideal Chemical Reactors: Maximizing Absorption Rates

I solved equations that describe coupled hydrolysis in and absorption from a continuously stirred tank reactor (CSTR), a plug flow reactor (PFR), and a batch reactor (BR) for the rate of ingestion and/or the throughput time that maximizes the rate of absorption (=gross rate of gain from digestion). Predictions are that foods requiring a single hydrolytic step (e.g., disaccharides) yield ingestion rates that vary inversely with the concentration of food substrate ingested, whereas foods that require multiple hydrolytic and absorptive reactions proceeding in parallel (e.g., proteins) yield maximal ingestion rates at intermediate substrate concentrations. Counterintuitively, then, animals acting to maximize their absorption rates should show compensatory ingestion (more rapid feeding on food of lower concentration), except for the lower range of diet quality fur complex diets and except for animals that show purely linear (passive) uptake. At their respective maxima in absorption rates, the PFR and BR yield only modestly higher rates of gain than the CSTR but do so at substantially lower rates of ingestion. All three ideal reactors show milder than linear reduction in rate of absorption when throughput or holding time in the gut is increased (e.g., by scarcity or predation hazard); higher efficiency of hydrolysis and extraction offset lower intake. Hence adding feeding costs and hazards of predation is likely to slow ingestion rates and raise absorption efficiencies substantially over the cost-free optima found here.

Hydrodynamic and Thermophoretic Effects on the Supramolecular Chirality of Pyrene-Derived Nanosheets

Chiroptical properties of two-dimensional (2D) supramolecular assemblies (nanosheets) of achiral, charged pyrene trimers (Py3) are rendered chiral by asymmetric physical perturbations. Chiral stimuli in a cuvette can originate either from controlled temperature gradients or by very gentle stirring. The chiroptical activity strongly depends on the degree of supramolecular order of the nanosheets, which is easily controlled by the method of preparation. The high degree of structural order ensures strong cooperative effects within the aggregates, rendering them more susceptible to external stimuli. The samples prepared by using slow thermal annealing protocols are both CD and LD active (in stagnant and stirred solutions), whereas for isothermally aged samples chiroptical activity was in all cases undetectable. In the case of temperature gradients, the optical activity of 2D assemblies could be recorded for a stagnant solution due to migration of the aggregates from the hottest to the coldest regions of the system. However, a considerably stronger exciton coupling, coinciding with the J-band of the interacting pyrenes, is developed upon subtle vortexing (0.5 Hz, 30 rpm) of the aqueous solution of the nanosheets. The sign of the exciton coupling is inverted upon switching between clockwise and counter-clockwise rotation. The supramolecular chirality is evidenced by the appearance of CD activity. To exclude artefacts from proper CD spectra, the contribution from LD to the observed CD was determined. The data suggest that the aggregates experience asymmetrical deformation and alignment effects because of the presence of chiral flows.

Continuous eclogite melting and variable refertilisation in upwelling heterogeneous mantle

Large-scale tectonic processes introduce a range of crustal lithologies into the Earth's mantle. These lithologies have been implicated as sources of compositional heterogeneity in mantle-derived magmas. The model being explored here assumes the presence of widely dispersed fragments of residual eclogite (derived from recycled oceanic crust), stretched and stirred by convection in the mantle. Here we show with an experimental study that these residual eclogites continuously melt during upwelling of such heterogeneous mantle and we characterize the melting reactions and compositional changes in the residue minerals. The chemical exchange between these partial melts and more refractory peridotite leads to a variably metasomatised mantle. Re-melting of these metasomatised peridotite lithologies at given pressures and temperatures results in diverse melt compositions, which may contribute to the observed heterogeneity of oceanic basalt suites. We also show that heterogeneous upwelling mantle is subject to diverse local freezing, hybridization and carbonate-carbon-silicate redox reactions along a mantle adiabat.

Animal Guts as Nonideal Chemical Reactors: Partial Mixing and Axial Variation in Absorption Kinetics

Animal guts have been idealized as axially uniform plug-flow reactors (PFRs) without significant axial mixing or as combinations in series of such PFRs with other reactor types. To relax these often unrealistic assumptions and to provide a means for relaxing others, I approximated an animal gut as a series of n continuously stirred tank reactors (CSTRs) and examined its performance as a Function of n. For the digestion problem of hydrolysis and absorption in series, I suggest as a first approximation that a tubular gut of length L and diameter D comprises n=L/D tanks in series. For n greater than or equal to 10, there is little difference between performance of the nCSTR model and an ideal PFR in the coupled tasks of hydrolysis and absorption. Relatively thinner and longer guts, characteristic of animals feeding on poorer forage, prove more efficient in both conversion and absorption by restricting axial mixing, in the same total volume, they also give a higher rate of absorption. I then asked how a fixed number of absorptive sites should be distributed among the n compartments. Absorption rate generally is maximized when absorbers are concentrated in the hindmost few compartments, but high food quality or suboptimal ingestion rates decrease the advantage of highly concentrated absorbers. This modeling approach connects gut function and structure at multiple scales and can be extended to include other nonideal reactor behaviors observed in real animals.

Proceedings of the Twenty-First Annual Biochemical Engineering Symposium

The 21st Annual Biochemical Engineering Symposium was held at Colorado State University on April 20, 1991. The primary goals of this symposium series are to provide an opportunity for students to present and publish their research work and to promote informal discussions on biochemical engineering research. Contents High Density Fed-Batch Cultivation and Energy Metabolism of Bacillus thuringtensis; W.-M. Liu, V. Bihari, M. Starzak, and R.K. Bajpai Influences of Medium Composition and Cultivation Conditions on Recombinant Protein Production by Bacillus subtilis; K. Park, P.M. Linzmaier, and K.F. Reardon Characterization of a Foreign Gene Expression in a Recombinant T7 Expression System Infected with λ Phages; F. Miao and D.S. Kompala Simulation of an Enzymatic Membrane System with Forced Periodic Supply of Substrate; N. Nakaiwa, M. Yashima, L.T. Fan, and T. Ohmori Batch Extraction of Dilut Acids in a Hollow Fiber Module; D.G. O'Brien and C.E. Glatz Evaluation of a New Electrophoretic Device for Protein Purification; M.-J. Juang and R.G. Harrison Crossflow Microfiltration and Membrane Fouling for Yeast Cell Suspension; S. Redkar and R. Davis Interaction of MBP-β-Galactosidase Fusion Protein with Starch; L. Taladriz and Z. Nikolov Predicting the Solubility of Recombinant Proteins in Escherichia coli; D.L. Wilkinson and R.G. Harrison Evolution of a Phase-Separated, Gravity-Independent Bioractor; P.E. Villeneuve and E.H. Dunlop A Strategy for the Decontamination of Soils Containing Elevated Levels of PCP; S. Ghoshal, S. K. Banelji, and RK. Bajpai Practical Considerations for Implementation of a Field Scale In-Situ Bioremediation Project; J.P. McDonald, CA Baldwin, and L.E. Erickson Parametric Sensitivity Studies of Rhizopus oligosporus Solid Substrate Fermentation; J. Sargantanis, M.N. Karim, and V.G. Murphy, and RP. Tengerdy Production of Acetyl-Xylan Esterase from Aspergillus niger; M.R Samara and J.C. Linden Biological and Latex Particle Partitioning in Aqueous Two-Phase Systems; D.T.L. Hawker, RH. Davis, P.W. Todd, and R Lawson Novel Bioreactor /Separator for Microbial Desulfurization of Coal; H. Gecol, RH. Davis, and J .R Mattoon Effect of Plants and Trees on the Fate, Transport and Biodegradation of Contaminants in the Soil and Ground Water; W. Huang, E. Lee, J.F. Shimp, L.C. Davis, L.E. Erickson, and J.C. Tracy Sound Production by Interfacial Effects in Airlift Reactors; J. Hua, T.-Y. Yiin, LA Glasgow, and L.E. Erickson Soy Yogurt Fermentation of Rapid Hydration Hydrothermal Cooked Soy Milk; P. Tuitemwong, L.E. Erickson, and D.Y.C. Fung Influence of Carbon Source on Pentachlorophenol Degradation by Phanerochaete chrysosportum in Soil; C.-Y.M. Hsieh, RK. Bajpai, and S.K. Banerji Cellular Responses of Insect Cells Spodopiera frugiperda -9 to Hydrodynamic Stresses; P.L.-H. Yeh and RK. Bajpa1 A Mathematical Model for Ripening of Cheddar Cheese; J. Kim, M. Starzak, G.W. Preckshoi, and R.K. Bajpai

Dioses, Dios

"We are not jealous of gods, we do not serve them, we do not fear them, but at the risk of our lives, we attest for their multiple existence, and are stirred to be of their chancy keeping when they are no more remembered of". What could mean such a sentence written by René Char? Is it still possible to think and to experiment, here and now, after centuries of monotheism, something like a plurality of gods? What is it to be a pagan? Rereading Homer, and then Plato, Nietzsche and Lyotard, we could risk the following de´Çü nition: pagan is someone able to suppose, between performance and cosmos, that the one coming up to him is, may be, some god.

Dioses, Dios

"We are not jealous of gods, we do not serve them, we do not fear them, but at the risk of our lives, we attest for their multiple existence, and are stirred to be of their chancy keeping when they are no more remembered of". What could mean such a sentence written by René Char? Is it still possible to think and to experiment, here and now, after centuries of monotheism, something like a plurality of gods? What is it to be a pagan? Rereading Homer, and then Plato, Nietzsche and Lyotard, we could risk the following de´Çü nition: pagan is someone able to suppose, between performance and cosmos, that the one coming up to him is, may be, some god.

Dioses, Dios

"We are not jealous of gods, we do not serve them, we do not fear them, but at the risk of our lives, we attest for their multiple existence, and are stirred to be of their chancy keeping when they are no more remembered of". What could mean such a sentence written by René Char? Is it still possible to think and to experiment, here and now, after centuries of monotheism, something like a plurality of gods? What is it to be a pagan? Rereading Homer, and then Plato, Nietzsche and Lyotard, we could risk the following de´Çü nition: pagan is someone able to suppose, between performance and cosmos, that the one coming up to him is, may be, some god.

Geochemistry and radiogenic isotopes of ODP Hole 157-953C lavas

The Canary Island primitive basaltic magmas are thought to be derived from an HIMU-type upwelling mantle containing isotopically depleted (NMORB)-type component having interacted with an enriched (EM)-type component, the origin of which is still a subject of debate. We studied the relationships between Ni, Mn and Ca concentrations in olivine phenocrysts (85.6-90.0 mol.% Fo, 1,722-3,915 ppm Ni, 1,085-1,552 ppm Mn, 1,222-3,002 ppm Ca) from the most primitive subaerial and ODP Leg 157 high-silica (picritic to olivine basaltic) lavas with their bulk rock Sr-Nd-Pb isotope compositions (87Sr/86Sr = 0.70315-0.70331, 143Nd/144Nd = 0.51288-0.51292, 206Pb/204Pb = 19.55-19.93, 207Pb/204Pb = 15.60-15.63, 208Pb/204Pb = 39.31-39.69). Our data point toward the presence of both a peridotitic and a pyroxenitic component in the magma source. Using the model (Sobolev et al., 2007, Science Vol 316) in which the reaction of Si-rich melts originated during partial melting of eclogite (a high pressure product of subducted oceanic crust) with ambient peridotitic mantle forms olivine-free reaction pyroxenite, we obtain an end member composition for peridotite with 87Sr/86Sr = 0.70337, 143Nd/144Nd = 0.51291, 206Pb/204Pb = 19.36, 207Pb/204Pb = 15.61 and 208Pb/204Pb = 39.07 (EM-type end member), and pyroxenite with 87Sr/86Sr = 0.70309, 143Nd/144Nd = 0.51289, 206Pb/204Pb = 20.03, 207Pb/204Pb = 15.62 and 208Pb/204Pb = 39.84 (HIMU-type end member). Mixing of melts from these end members in proportions ranging from 70% peridotite and 30% pyroxenite to 28% peridotite and 72% pyroxenite derived melt fractions can generate the compositions of the most primitive Gran Canaria shield stage lavas. Combining our results with those from the low-silica rocks from the western Canary Islands (Gurenko et al., 2009, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2008.11.013), at least four distinct components are required. We propose that they are (1) HIMU-type pyroxenitic component (representing recycled ocean crust of intermediate age) from the plume center, (2) HIMU-type peridotitic component (ancient recycled ocean crust stirred into the ambient mantle) from the plume margin, (3) depleted, MORB-type pyroxenitic component (young recycled oceanic crust) in the upper mantle entrained by the plume, and (4) EM-type peridotitic component from the asthenosphere or lithosphere above the plume center.

Sediment facies of the Indian-Pakistan continental margin, Indian Ocean Expedition

The studies described here base mainly on sedimentary material collected during the "Indian Ocean Expedition" of the German research vessel "Meteor" in the region of the Indian-Pakistan continental margin in February and March 1965. Moreover,samples from the mouth of the Indus-River were available, which were collected by the Pakistan fishing vessel "Machhera" in March 1965. Altogether, the following quantities of sedimentary material were collected: 59.73 m piston cores. 54.52 m gravity cores. 33 box grab samples. 68 bottom grab samples Component analyses of the coarse fraction were made of these samples and the sedimentary fabric was examined. Moreover, the CaCO3 and Corg contents were discussed. From these investigations the following history of sedimentation can be derived: Recent sedimentation on the shelf is mainly characterized by hydrodynamic processes and terrigenous supply of material. In the shallow water wave action and currents running parallel to the coast, imply a repeated reworking which induces a sorting of the grains and layering of the sediments as well as a lack of bioturbation. The sedimentation rate is very high here. From the coast-line down to appr. 50 m the sediment becomes progressively finer, the conditions of deposition become less turbulent. On the outer shelf the sediment is again considerably coarser. It contains many relicts of planktonic organisms and it shows traces of burrowing. Indications for redeposition are nearly missing, a considerable part of the fine fraction of the sediments is, however, whirled up and carried away. In wide areas of the outer shelf this stirring has gained such a degree that recent deposits are nearly completely missing. Here, coarse relict sands rich in ooids are exposed, which were formed in very shallow stirred water during the time when the sea reached its lowest level, i.e. at the turn of the Pleistocene to the Holocene. Below the relict sand white, very fine-grained aragonite mud was found at one location (core 228). This aragonite mud was obviously deposited in very calm water of some greater depth, possibly behind a reef barrier. Biochemic carbonate precipitation played an important part in the formation of relict sands and aragonite muds. In postglacial times the relict sands were exposed for long periods to violent wave action and to areal erosion. In the present days they are gradually covered by recent sediments proceeding from the sides. On the continental margin beyond the shelf edge the distribution of the sediments is to a considerable extent determined by the morphology of the sea bottom. The material originating from the continent and/or the shelf, is less transported by action of the water than by the force of gravity. Within the range of the uppermost part of the continental slope recent sedimentation reaches its maximum. Here the fine material is deposited which has been whirled up in the zone of the relict sands. A laminated fine-grained sediment is formed here due to the very high sedimentation rate as well as to the extremely low O2-content in the bottom water, which prevents life on the bottom of the sea and impedes thus also bioturbation. The lamination probaly reflects annual variation in deposition and can be attributed to the rhythm of the monsoon with its effects on the water and the weather conditions. In the lower part of the upper continental slope sediments are to be found which show in varying intensity, intercalations of fine material (silt) from the shelf, in large sections of the core. These fine intercalations of allochthonous material are closely related to the autochthonous normal sediment, so that a great number of small individual depositional processes can be inferred. In general the intercalations are missing in the uppermost part of the cores; in the lower part they can be met in different quantities, and they reach their maximum frequency in the upper part of the lower core section. The depositions described here were designated as turbid layer sediments, since they get their material from turbid layers, which transport components to the continental slope which have been whirled up from the shelf. Turbidites are missing in this zone. Since the whole upper continental slope shows a low oxygen-content of the bottom water the structure of the turbid layer sediments is more or less preserved. The lenticular-phacoidal fine structure does, however, not reflect annual rhythms, but sporadic individual events, as e.g. tsunamis. At the lower part of the continental slope and on the continental rise the majority of turbidites was deposited, which, during glacial times and particularly at the beginning of the post-glacial period, transported material from the zone of relict sands. The Laccadive Ridge represented a natural obstacle for the transport of suspended sediments into the deep sea. Core SIC-181 from the Arabian Basin shows some intercalations of turbidites; their material, however, does not originate from the Indian Shelf, but from the Laccadive Ridge. Within the range of the Indus Cone it is surprising that distinct turbidites are nearly completely missing; on the other hand, turbid layer sediments are to be found. The bottom of the sea is showing still a slight slope here, so that the turbidites funneled through the Canyon of the Swatch probably rush down to greater water depths. Due to the particularly large supply of suspended material by theIndus River the turbid layer sediments show farther extension than in other regions. In general the terrigenous components are concentrated on the Indus Cone. It is within the range of the lower continental slope that the only discovery of a sliding mass (core 186) has been located. It can be assumed that this was set in motion during the Holocene. During the period of time discussed here the following development of kind and intensity of the deposition of allochthonous material can be observed on the Indian-Pakistan continental margin: At the time of the lowest sea level the shelf was only very narrow, and the zone in which bottom currents were able to stir up material by oscillating motion, was considerably confined. The rivers flowed into the sea near to the edge of the shelf. For this reason the percentage of terrigenous material, quartz and mica is higher in the lower part of many cores (e.g. cores 210 and 219) than in the upper part. The transition from glacial to postglacial times caused a series of environmental changes. Among them the rise of the sea level (in the area of investigation appr. 150 m) had the most important influence on the sedimentation process. In connection with this event many river valleys became canyons, which sucked sedimentary material away from the shelf and transported it in form of turbidites into the deep sea. During the rise of the sea level a situation can be expected with a maximum area of the comparatively plane shelf being exposed to wave action. During this time the process of stirring up of sediments and formation of turbid layers will reach a maximum. Accordingly, the formation of turbidites and turbid layer sediments are most frequent at the same time. This happened in general in the older polstglacial period. The present day high water level results in a reduced supply of sediments into the canyons. The stirring up of sediments from the shelf by wave action is restricted to the finest material. The missing of shelf material in the uppermost core sections can thus be explained. The laminated muds reflect these calm sedimentation conditions as well. In the southwestern part of the area of investigation fine volcanic glass was blown in during the Pleistocene, probably from the southeast. It has thus become possible to correlate the cores 181, 182, 202. Eolian dust from the Indian subcontinent represents probably an important component of the deep sea sediments. The chemism of the bottom as well as of the pore water has a considerable influence on the development of the sediments. Of particular importance in this connection is a layer with a minimum content of oxygen in the sea water (200-1500 m), which today touches the upper part of the continental slope. Above and beyond this oxygen minimum layer somewhat higher O2-values are to be observed at the sea bottom. During the Pleistocene the oxygen minimum layer has obviously been locatedin greater depth as is indicated by the facies of laminated mud occuring in the lower part of core 219. The type of bioturbation is mainly determined by the chemism. Moreover, the chemism is responsible for a considerable selective dissolution, either complete or partial, of the sedimentary components. Within the range of the oxygen minimum layer an alkaline milieu is developed at the bottom. This causes a complete or partial dissolution of the siliceous organisms. Here, bioturbation is in general completely missing; sometimes small pyrite-filled burrowing racks are found. In the areas rich in O2 high pH-values result in a partial dissolution of the calcareous shells. Large, non-pyritized burrowing tracks characterize the type of bioturbation in this environment. A study of the "lebensspuren" in the cores supports the assumption that, particularly within the region of the Laccadive Basin, the oxygen content in the bottom sediments was lower than during the Holocene. This may be attributed to a high sedimentation rate and to a lower O2-content of the bottom water. The composition of the allochthonous sedimentary components, detritus and/or volcanic glass may locally change the chemism to a considerable extent for a certain time; under such special circumstances the type of bioturbation and the state of preservation of the components may be different from those of the normal sediment.

Potenciación de la respuesta productiva en rumiantes mediante el empleo de proteínas protegidas

El principal objetivo de esta tesis fue incrementar la eficiencia proteica en las dietas de rumiantes mediante el uso de proteínas protegidas (harina de girasol y guisante de primavera), así como mejorar la predicción de los aportes de proteína microbiana. Una partida de harinas comerciales de girasol (HG) y de guisante de primavera (GP) fueron tratadas con soluciones 4 N de ácido málico (268,2 g/L) o ácido ortofosfórico (130,6 g/L). Para cada harina, ácido y día de tratamiento, dos fracciones de 12,5 kg fueron pulverizadas sucesivamente en una hormigonera con la solución de ácido correspondiente mediante un pulverizador de campo. Las dos fracciones fueron mezcladas posteriormente y se dejaron reposar durante 1 h a temperatura ambiente. La mezcla fue luego secada en una estufa de aire forzado a 120 ºC durante 1 h. La estufa fue apagada inmediatamente después y el material tratado se mantuvo dentro de ésta hasta la mañana siguiente. El material fue removido durante el proceso de secado cada 30 min durante las primeras 2 h y cada 60 min durante las 5 h posteriores. Este proceso se repitió hasta conseguir las cantidades de harinas tratadas necesarias en los distintos ensayos. En el primer experimento (capitulo 3) se llevaron a cabo estudios de digestión ruminal e intestinal para evaluar los efectos de la aplicación de las soluciones ácidas indicadas y calor a fin de proteger las proteínas de HG y GP contra la degradación ruminal. Estos estudios se realizaron con tres corderos canulados en el rumen y en el duodeno. El estudio de digestión ruminal fue realizado en tres periodos experimentales en los que los corderos fueron alimentados sucesivamente con tres dietas isoproteicas que incluían HG y GP, sin tratar o tratadas con ácidos málico u ortofosfórico. Cada periodo experimental de 21 días incluyó sucesivamente: 10 días de adaptación a las dietas, un estudio del tránsito ruminal de las partículas de HG y GP (días 11 a 14), y la incubación de las muestras de ambos alimentos en bolsas de nailon (días 15–21). Las harinas incubadas en cada periodo experimental correspondieron a las que fueron incluidas en las dietas. Las bacterias ruminales fueron marcadas desde el día 11 hasta el día 21 del periodo experimental mediante infusión intra-ruminal continua con una fuente de 15N. Tras finalizar las incubaciones in situ el día 21 el rumen fue vaciado en cada periodo para aislar las bacterias asociadas a la fase sólida y liquida del rumen. El estudio de digestión intestinal fue realizado veinte días después del final del estudio ruminal a fin de eliminar el enriquecimiento en 15N de la digesta. En este estudio se incubaron muestras compuestas obtenidas mediante la combinación de los diferentes residuos no degradados en el rumen de forma que fuesen representativas de la composición química de la fracción no degradada en el rumen (RU). En esta fase los corderos fueron alimentados con la dieta sin tratar para determinar la digestibilidad de las harinas tanto tratadas como sin tratar mediante la técnica de las bolsas móviles. Además, las proteínas contenidas en las harinas tratadas y sin tratar, así como en las muestras correspondientes a los residuos a 0 h, las muestras compuestas anteriormente indicadas y las muestras no digeridas intestinalmente fueron extraídas y sometidas a electroforesis para determinar el sitio de digestión de las diferentes fracciones proteicas. Las estimaciones de la RU y la digestibilidad intestinal de la materia seca, la materia orgánica (solamente para RU), la proteína bruta (PB) y el almidón (solamente en GP) fueron obtenidos considerando la contaminación microbiana y las tasas de conminución y salida de partículas. Las estimaciones de RU y de la digestibilidad intestinal disminuyeron en todas las fracciones evaluadas de ambos alimentos al corregir por la contaminación microbiana acaecida en el rumen. Todas las estimaciones de RU aumentaron con los tratamientos de protección, incrementándose también la digestibilidad intestinal de la materia seca en la HG. Los bajos valores de la digestibilidad de la proteína de GP tratado y sin tratar sugieren la presencia de algún factor antitripsico no termolábil es esta harina. Los tratamientos de protección incrementaron consistentemente la fracción de materia seca y PB digerida intestinalmente en los dos alimentos, mientras que la fracción de almidón en la muestra de GP solamente aumentó numéricamente (60,5% de media). Sin embargo, los tratamientos también redujeron la fermentación de la materia orgánica, lo cual podría disminuir la síntesis de proteína microbiana. Los estudios de electroforesis muestran la práctica desaparición de la albumina por la degradación ruminal en ambos alimentos, así como que los cambios en otras proteínas de la muestra RU fueron más pronunciados en GP que en HG. La composición de las bacterias asociadas con las fases de digesta ruminal sólida (BAS) y líquida (BAL) fue estudiada para revisar la precisión de un sistema de predicción previo que determinaba la infravaloración del aporte de nutrientes correspondiente a las BAS cuando de usa 15N como marcador y las BAL como referencia microbiana (capitulo 4). Al comparar con BAS, BAL mostraron menores contenidos en materia orgánica, polisacáridos de glucosa y lípidos totales y un mayor contenido en PB, así como un mayor enriquecimiento en 15N. Los datos obtenidos en el estudio actual se ajustan bien a la ecuación previa que predice el enriquecimiento en 15N de las BAS a partir del mismo valor en BAL. Esta nueva ecuación permite establecer que se produce una infravaloración de un 22% en el aporte de PB al animal a partir de las BAS sintetizadas si las BAL son usadas como muestras de referencia. Una segunda relación calculada utilizando los valores medios por dieta expuestos en numerosos trabajos encontrados en la literatura confirma la magnitud de este error. Esta infravaloración asociada al uso de BAL como referencia fue mayor para el aporte de glucosa (43,1%) y todavía mayor para el aporte de lípidos (59,9%), como consecuencia de los menores contenidos de ambas fracciones en BAL frente a SAB. Estos errores deberían ser considerados para obtener mayor precisión en la estimación del aporte de nutrientes microbianos y mejorar la nutrición de los rumiantes. En el experimento 2 se realizó un estudio de producción (capitulo 5) para evaluar los efectos del tratamiento de las harinas HG y GP con soluciones de ácido málico o ácido ortofosfórico sobre el crecimiento, el consumo de concentrado y el rendimiento y engrasamiento de las canales de corderos de engorde. Noventa corderos machos de cruce entrefino procedentes de tres granjas comerciales (peso inicial medio = 14,6, 15,3 y 13,3 kg, respectivamente) fueron asignados aleatoriamente a cinco dietas con diferentes niveles de proteína y diferentes tratamientos con ácidos y engordados hasta un peso medio al sacrificio de 25 kg. Las fuentes de proteína en el pienso control (C; PB=18,0%) fueron harina de soja, HG y GP sin tratar. En tres de los piensos experimentales, las harinas tratadas con ácido ortofosfórico sustituyeron a las de HG y GP sin tratar (Control Ortofosfórico, PC; PB=18,0% sobre materia seca), sustituyéndose, además, la harina de soja parcialmente (Sustitución Media Ortofosfórico, MSP; PB=16,7%) o totalmente (Sustitución Total Ortofosfórico, TSP; PB=15,6%). Finalmente, en uno de los piensos el ácido ortofosfórico fue reemplazo por acido málico para proteger ambas harinas (Sustitución Media Málico, MSM; PB= 16,7%). La paja de trigo (fuente de forraje) y el concentrado fueron ofrecidos ad libitum. Dieciocho corderos fueron distribuidos en seis cubículos con tres animales para cada dieta. Los datos fueron analizados según un análisis factorial considerando el peso inicial como covariable y la granja de procedencia como bloque. Los datos de consumo de concentrado y eficiencia de conversión fueron analizados usando el cubículo como unidad experimental, mientras que los datos sobre ganancia media diaria, rendimiento a la canal, grasa dorsal y grasa pélvico renal fueron analizados usando el cordero como unidad experimental. No se encontró ningún efecto asociado con el nivel de PB sobre ninguna variable estudiada. Esto sugiere que usando proteínas protegidas es posible utilizar concentrados con 15,6% de PB (sobre materia seca) disminuyendo así la cantidad de concentrados de proteína vegetal a incluir en los piensos y la calidad de los concentrados proteicos. Los corderos alimentados con la dieta MSM tuvieron mayores ganancias medias diarias (15,2%; P= 0,042), y mejores rendimiento a la canal en caliente (1,3 unidades porcentuales; P= 0,037) que los corderos alimentados con el concentrado MSP. Esto podría ser explicado por los efectos benéficos ruminales del malato o por el mayor efecto de protección conseguido con el ácido málico. ABSTRACT The main objective of this thesis project was to increase the protein efficiency in ruminant diets by using protected protein (sunflower meal and spring pea), and improving the prediction of microbial protein supply. Commercial sunflower meal (SFM) and spring pea (SP) were treated with 4 N solutions (200 mL/kg) of malic acid (268.2 g/L) or orthophosphoric acid (130.6 g/L). Daily, two fractions of 12.5 kg of one of these meals were successively sprayed with the tested acid solution in a concrete mixer using a sprayer. Both fractions were then mixed and allowed to rest for 1 h at room temperature. The blend was then dried in a forced air oven at 120 ºC for 1 h. Then the oven was turned off and the treated material was left in the oven overnight. During the drying process, the material was stirred every 30 min during the first 2 h and then every 60 min for the subsequent 5 h. This process was repeated until the amounts of treated flour needed for the different trials performed. In the first experiment (chapter 3), ruminal and intestinal digestion trials were conducted to study the effects of the application of these acid solutions and heat to protect proteins of SFM and SP against ruminal degradation using three wethers fitted with rumen and duodenum cannulae. The ruminal digestion study was carried out in three experimental periods in which the wethers were successively fed three isoproteic diets including SFM and SP, untreated or treated with malic or orthophosphoric acids. The experimental periods of 21 days included successively: 10 days of diet adaptation, SFM and SP particle ruminal transit study (days 11–14) and ruminal nylon-bag incubations (days 15–21). The meals incubated in each experimental period were those corresponding to the associated diet. Rumen bacteria were labelled from days 11 to 21 by continuous intra-ruminal infusion of a 15N source and the rumen was emptied at the end of in situ incubations in each period to isolate solid adherent bacteria and liquid associate bacteria. The intestinal digestion trial was conducted twenty days after the end of the ruminal studies to eliminate the 15N enrichment in the digesta. The tested samples were composite samples obtained pooling the different ruminally undegraded residues to be representative of the chemical composition of the ruminally undegraded fraction (RU). Wethers were fed the untreated diet to determine the intestinal digestibility of untreated and treated meals using the mobile nylon bag technique. In addition, protein in untreated and treated meals and their 0 h, composite and intestinally undigested samples were extracted and subjected to electrophoresis to determine the digestion site of the different protein fractions. Estimates of the RU and its intestinal digestibility of dry matter, organic matter (only for RU), crude protein (CP) and starch (only in SP) were obtained considering ruminal microbial contamination and particle comminution and outflow rates. When corrected for the microbial contamination taking place in the rumen, estimates of RU and intestinal digestibility decreased in all tested fractions for both feeds. All RU estimates increased with the protective treatments, whereas intestinal digestibility-dry matter also increased in SFM. Low intestinal digestibility-CP values in untreated and treated samples suggested the presence of non-heat labile antitrypsin factors in SP. Protective treatments of both feeds led to consistent increases in the intestinal digested fraction of dry matter and CP, being only numerically different for SP-starch (60.5% as average). However, treatments also reduced the organic matter fermentation, which may decrease ruminal microbial protein synthesis. Electrophoretic studies showed albumin disappearance in both SFM and SP, whereas changes in other RU proteins were more pronounced in SP than SFM. The chemical composition of bacteria associated with solid (SAB) and liquid (LAB) rumen-digesta phases was studied to examine the accuracy of a previous regression system determining the underevaluation of SAB-nutrient supply using 15N as marker and LAB as microbial reference (chapter 4). Compared with SAB, LAB showed lower contents of organic matter, polysaccharide-glucose and total lipids and the opposite for the CP content and the 15N enrichment. Present data fitted well to the previous relationship predicting the 15N enrichment of SAB from the same value in LAB. This new equation allows establishing an underevaluation in the supply of CP from the synthesized SAB in 22.0% if LAB is used as reference. Another relationship calculated using mean diet values from the literature confirmed the magnitude of this error. This underevaluation was higher for the supply of glucose (43.1%) and still higher for the lipid supply (59.9%) as a consequence of the lower contents of these both fractions in LAB than in SAB. These errors should be considered to obtain more accurate estimates of the microbial nutrient supply and to improve ruminant nutrition. A production study was performed in experiment 2 (chapter 5) to examine the effects of treating SFM and SP meals with orthophosphoric or malic acid solutions on growth performance, concentrate intake, and carcass yield and fatness of growing-fattening lambs. Ninety "Entrefino" cross male lambs from three commercial farms (average initial body weights (BW) = 14.6, 15.3 and 13.3 kg) were randomly assigned to five diets with different acid treatment and protein levels, and fattened to an average slaughter weight of 25 kg. Protein sources in the control concentrate (C; CP=18%) were soybean meal and untreated SFM and SP. In three of the experimental concentrates, orthophosphoric acid-treated meals substituted untreated SFM and SP (Orthophosphoric Control, PC; CP=18% dry matter basis), and soybean meal was partially (Medium Substitution Orthophosphoric, MSP; CP=16.7%) or totally removed (Total Substitution Orthophosphoric, TSP; CP=15.6%). In addition, in one concentrate orthophosphoric acid was replaced by malic acid to protect these meals (Medium Substitution Malic, MSM; CP= 16.7%). Wheat straw (roughage source) and concentrate were offered ad libitum. Eighteen lambs were allocated to six pens of three animals on each diet. Data were analyzed using a factorial analysis with initial body weight BW as covariate and farm of origin as block. Data on concentrate intake and feed conversion efficiency were analyzed using pen as experimental unit, while data on average daily gain, carcass yield, dorsal fat, and kidney-pelvic-fat were analyzed with lamb as experimental unit. No effect associated with the CP level was observed on any parameter. This suggests that with protected proteins it is possible to feed concentrates with 15.6% CP (dry matter basis) reducing the quantity of vegetable protein meals to include in the concentrate as well as the quality of the protein concentrates. Lambs feed MSM had higher average daily gains (15.2%; P= 0.042), and better hot carcass yields (1.3 percentage points; P= 0.037) than lambs feed MSP. This probably can be explained by ruminal malate actions and by greater protection effects obtained with malic acid.

Detection of one slowly exchanging substrate water molecule in the S3 state of photosystem II.

The exchangeability of the substrate water molecules at the catalytic site of water oxidation in photosystem II has been probed by isotope-exchange measurements using mass spectrometric detection of flash-induced oxygen evolution. A stirred sample chamber was constructed to reduce the lag time between injection of H2(18)O and the detecting flash by a factor of more than 1000 compared to the original experiments by R. Radmer and O. Ollinger [(1986) FEBS Lett. 195, 285-289]. Our data show that there is a slow (t1/2 approximately 500 ms, 10 degrees C) and a fast (t1/2 <25 ms, 10 degrees C) exchanging substrate water molecule in the S3 state of photosystem II. The slow exchange is coupled with an activation energy of about 75 kJ/mol and is discussed in terms of a terminal manganese oxo ligand, while the faster exchanging substrate molecule may represent a water molecule not directly bound to the manganese center.

Método simples e rápido para seleção de fungos filamentosos produtores de compostos absorvedores de radiação UV para aplicação em protetores solares

Foram estudadas trinta e uma cepas fúngicas não identificadas, as quais foram denominadasX1 a X31. O potencial fotoprotetor foi avaliado pela medida espectrofotométrica da absorçãodos extratos na região do UV (280-400 nm). Os extratos com os melhores perfis de absorção em cultura estacionária foram X1, X2, X6, X12, X13, X18, X19, X22, X24 e X31 e, em cultura agitada X4 e X17. A reprodutibilidade do processo foi avaliada e as cepas fúngicas que apresentaram coeficiente de variação menor que 15% foram selecionadas para o estudo de fotoestabilidade. A fotoestabilidade dos extratos foi avaliada pela medida da viabilidade celular de fibroblastos L929 tratados com extratos previamente irradiados sob radiação UVA (11,2 J/cm2) e UVB (3,43 J/cm2) e extratos não irradiados, bem como, pela comparação das áreas sob as curvas de absorção na região do UV dos extratos irradiados e não irradiados. Os extratos selecionados para o estudo de fotoestabilidade foram X4, X12, X19, X22, X24 e X31. Os extratos não irradiados apresentaram os seguintes valores deIC50 para viabilidade celular (citotoxidade): X4-130µg/ml, X19-20µg/ml, X22-10 µg/ml e X24-60µg/ml. Após a radiação UVA e UVB, os extratos apresentaram redução significativa da viabilidade celular em relação ao IC50 dos extratos não irradiados. Sob luz UVB, os extratos X12 (IC50 35µg/ml) e X31 (IC50 70µg/ml) mantiveram a mesma porcentagem de redução da viabilidade celular quando comparado ao IC50 dos extratos não irradiados. No entanto após exposição à luz UVA, o extrato X12 aumentou a viabilidade celular de 50% (quando não irradiado) para 75% (irradiado). Enquanto que o extrato X31, mesmo após a radiação UVA, manteve a mesma redução de 50% da viabilidade celular. Nessa etapa os extratos selecionados foram os X12 e X31. O espectro de absorção na região do UV obtido para o extrato X12 mostrou uma redução da absorbância de 28,3% sob radiação UVB e de 60% sob radiação UVA em relação ao extrato não irradiado. O extrato X31 apresentou uma redução da absorbância de 17,6% e30% sob radiação UVB e UVA respectivamente, em relação ao extrato não irradiado. Os fungos selecionados foram identificados por PCR, sugerindo que o fungo X12 seja o Aspergillus terreus e o X31 seja o Talaromyces pinophilus. Por fim, foi feita a identificação da substância ativa do extrato X12 empregando a técnica de desreplicação, a qual fez o uso da instrumentação analítica acoplada UHPLC-DAD-(ESI)-HRMS associada ao banco de dados Chapman& Hall\'s Dictionary of Natural Products (DNP). No extrato X12 o composto majoritário foi identificado como sendo a citreoviridina. Assim, os resultados do presente trabalho permitiu estabelecer um procedimento para a seleção de fungos produtores de compostos absorvedores de radiação UV, que poderia ser aplicado na obtenção de novos filtros orgânicos naturais para protetores solares.