Length-weight relationship of intertidal molluscs from Mumbai, India

A study on the length-weight relationship of common intertidal molluscs from Mumbai showed a high degree of correlation between their length and weight. Most of the molluscs exhibited isometric growth pattern but in some species, allometric growth was found, which is attributed to maturity, nonlinear growth of shell and the ecological conditions. The variations in the growth rate of Gafriarium divaricatum sampled from two geographically separate sites, Bandstand and NCPA, is a result of variation in ecological conditions.

Comparative account of growth rate of body parts with total length in Rita pavimentata (Gunther)

The paper deals with sex-wise growth rate of different body parts in relation to total length in Rita paviinentata (Gunther). Growth rates calculated on pooled data by using the common regression coefficient 'b' reveals isometric and homogeneous nature in sexes.

Length-weight relationship in the Asian seabass, Lates calcarifer (Bloch) under culture condition

Asian seabass, Lates calcarifer (Bloch) - a catadromous centropomid perch, is a good candidate species for brackishwater aquaculture in India. The length-weight relationship and the relative condition of L. calcarifer were assessed under culture condition. The length of the fish samples ranged from 25 to 240 mm and the relative condition (w sub(r)) of the fish for different length groups ranged from 99.54 to 104.39, indicating the good condition of the fish. The regression analysis of log-transformed length-weight data was carried out and the 'b' coefficient indicates the good condition of fish showing an isometric growth in the juvenile phase under culture condition.

Studies on length-weight relationship of Gerres filamentosus Cuvier from the estuaries of the southern Karnataka coast

Random samples of Gerres filamentosus Cuvier from the Netravathi-Gurpur, Mulky, Kallayanapura, Mabukala and Kundapura estuaries of the southern Karnataka Coast were collected in the years 2000, 2001 and 2002, and length-weight relationships for each estuary were derived using multiple linear regression technique with one dummy variable. Hence, combined or sex-wise length-weight relationships were obtained after testing for homogeneity and isometric growth condition of fishes for each estuary by t-test. The extent of closeness of length-weight relationships between sexes and among estuaries for different years is explained by a trend line graph. The whole process of multiple linear regression analysis with one dummy variable is a better substitute for the analysis of covariance technique.

Length-weight relationship and relative condition factor in Oreochromis mossambicus (Peters) of Bhima River

Oreochromis mossambicus (Peters), a common freshwater fish of Bhima river, has high economic value and considerable fishery importance. The length-weight relationship in the logarithmic way for this fish can be written as: Log W = - 4.50241627 + 2.884822741 log L. This is close to the cubic law indicating the isometric growth of the fish in its natural habitat. The correlation coefficient (r) was found to be 0.9865 which showed a good relationship between the two parameters. The mean relative condition factor (K sub(n)) was 1.00 suggesting the well-being of the fish.

Length-weight relationship in freshwater cat fish Clarias batrachus (Linn.)

Clarias batrachus (Linn.), a common freshwater cat fish of Bhima River, has high economic value and considerable fishery importance. The length-weight relationship in the logarithmic way for this fish can be written as: Log W = 4.503717819 + 2.70681765 Log L. This is close to the cubic law indicating the isometric growth of the fish in its natural habitat. The correlation coefficient (r) was found to be 0.9824 which showed a good relationship between the two parameters.

Comparative study of three short-chain neurotoxins from the venom of Naja kaouthia (Yunnan, China)

Three short-chain neurotoxins named NT-I, NT-II, and NT-III were purified from the venom of Naja kaouthia, a snake distributed throughout the south of Yunnan province, China, by a series of chromatographic steps, including an FPLC Resource S column. Their molecular weights, determined by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) MS, were 6952.19 Da, 6854.92 Da, and 6828.80 Da, respectively. NT-I consisted of 62 amino acid residues, and the other two consisted of 61 amino acid residues, including 8 cysteines. After hydrolysis by endoproteinase Glu-C, their primary sequences were determined. A test of their activities demonstrated that they effectively inhibited muscle contractions induced by electric stimulation. Furthermore, the extent of inhibition caused by NT-II and NT-III was less than that of NT-I. The IC(50)s were 0.04 mug/ml, 0.20 mug/ml, and 0.23 mug/ml for NT-I, NT-II, and NT-III, respectively. Compared with NT-II and NT-III, the higher activity of NT-I may be a result of the amino acid residue substitution Ile36 to Arg36.

Lack of mtDNA control region variation in Hainan Eld's deer: Consequence of a recent population bottleneck?

We find no genetic variation at 550bp of mtDNA control region among 55 Hainan Eld's deer in an island population that has suffered recent population contractions. Congeneric species show high levels of variation at this locus. We use a simulation approach to test the likelihood of various bottleneck scenarios, and show, in the context of what is known about the recent demographic history of this population, that there are credible scenarios for a bottleneck driven by hunting pressure in the 1960s that could account for the lack of variation at this locus.

Short- and long-term changes in joint co-contraction associated with motor learning as revealed from surface EMG.

In the field of motor control, two hypotheses have been controversial: whether the brain acquires internal models that generate accurate motor commands, or whether the brain avoids this by using the viscoelasticity of musculoskeletal system. Recent observations on relatively low stiffness during trained movements support the existence of internal models. However, no study has revealed the decrease in viscoelasticity associated with learning that would imply improvement of internal models as well as synergy between the two hypothetical mechanisms. Previously observed decreases in electromyogram (EMG) might have other explanations, such as trajectory modifications that reduce joint torques. To circumvent such complications, we required strict trajectory control and examined only successful trials having identical trajectory and torque profiles. Subjects were asked to perform a hand movement in unison with a target moving along a specified and unusual trajectory, with shoulder and elbow in the horizontal plane at the shoulder level. To evaluate joint viscoelasticity during the learning of this movement, we proposed an index of muscle co-contraction around the joint (IMCJ). The IMCJ was defined as the summation of the absolute values of antagonistic muscle torques around the joint and computed from the linear relation between surface EMG and joint torque. The IMCJ during isometric contraction, as well as during movements, was confirmed to correlate well with joint stiffness estimated using the conventional method, i.e., applying mechanical perturbations. Accordingly, the IMCJ during the learning of the movement was computed for each joint of each trial using estimated EMG-torque relationship. At the same time, the performance error for each trial was specified as the root mean square of the distance between the target and hand at each time step over the entire trajectory. The time-series data of IMCJ and performance error were decomposed into long-term components that showed decreases in IMCJ in accordance with learning with little change in the trajectory and short-term interactions between the IMCJ and performance error. A cross-correlation analysis and impulse responses both suggested that higher IMCJs follow poor performances, and lower IMCJs follow good performances within a few successive trials. Our results support the hypothesis that viscoelasticity contributes more when internal models are inaccurate, while internal models contribute more after the completion of learning. It is demonstrated that the CNS regulates viscoelasticity on a short- and long-term basis depending on performance error and finally acquires smooth and accurate movements while maintaining stability during the entire learning process.

Length-weight relationship of two palaemonid prawns, Macrobrachium idella and M. scabriculum: a comparative study

Length-weight relationships of two commercially important freshwater prawns, Macrobrachium idella and M. scabriculum, have been worked out separately for the two sexes of the two species. 't' test showed that growth departs significantly from the isometric growth in the case of both sexes of M. idella and in the female of M. scabriculum. Therefore, the cubic formula W = CL^3 may be applied only in the case of males of M. scabriculum. In all the other cases W = CL^n may be followed.

Length-weight relationship in Nandus nandus (Hamilton) (Perciformes-Teleostei)

Length-weight relationship of the freshwater fish of Pamba River, Nandus nandus (Ham) has been worked out. The results showed that the slope values and elevations were not significant and hence a combined regression equation has been calculated for both the sexes (Log W=2.4130 Log L -0.3306). The’t’ test analyses were conducted and found that the growth departs significantly from the isometric growth. Thus the formula W=aL super(n) has to be applied in calculating the length-weight relationship of this species.

The study of biological characteristics and heavy metal determination of Cd, Pb, Fe, V, Ni in the muscle, liver and gonad tissues of kingfish Scomberomorus commerson in the coastal waters of the Hormozagan Province (Persian Gulf)

Biological studies and heavy metal (Ni, v, Fe, Pb,Cd) determination in liver, gonad and muscle of Scomberomorus commerson were carried out from Oct 2006 to Sept 2007 in Hormozgan coastal waters. 599 Samples were gutted for reproduction and nutrition studies, fork length and weight were measured to nearest cm and g respectively. Meanwhile 40 samples were also investigated for heavy metal studies. All specimens were collected from two major landing sites (Bandar Lengeh & Bandar Abbas). Minimums & maximum fork length & weight were 29, 128 cm & 235 and 15350 g respectively.Isometric growth was shown according to our study and b was estimated 2.9 (overall), 2.91(male) & 2.89 (female). The average relative gut length was 0.52± 0.007 and it was determined that S. commerson is a carnivorous. More than 99 percent of gut content was different teleost fishes. Gastro somatic index had two peaks in Nov & Jan (before spawning) and with a decreased trend in July, the spawning period. Occurrence of empty stomach was estimated % 65.77. Maximum amount of condition factor was in Dec. Spawning season was started from June. The average of Absolute & relative fecundity (to weight unit) was 1217149±179315 and 178.2±15.58 respectively. Lm50% was estimated 75 cm for females. Sex ratio was 0.97: 1 (male: female). Chi- Square test showed no significant difference (p>0.05). Maximum amount of hepatosomatic index was estimated in March.Metal concentrations were determined using either Flame Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (for Fe) or Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (for Pb,Cd,Ni and V). The mean concentration (μg/g dry weight)of Pb,Cd,Ni,V and Fe in the liver were 0.0309, 0.0268, 0.0672, 0.0077, 2.5159 in the gonad 0.0440 ,0.0295, 0.1096, 0.0000, 1.4449 and in the muscle 0.0244, 0.0324, 0.0656, 0.0128, 1.6138 respectively. The maximum metal concentrations were below the maximum permissible limits for human consumption recommended by the USEPA, WHO and the UK. The results of Kendall's Tau-b correlation coefficient were as follows: The Liver tissue: There were significant positive linear relationships between accumulation of V, Fe, and Pb with Fork length, Pb and Fe with weight, GSI with Pb, Cd, V and 109 Fe, and a negative linear relationships between HSI with accumulation of V and Fe, Fork length, weight and GSI. The Gonad tissue: There were significant positive linear relationships between GSI with accumulation of Pb, Cd, Fe, Fork length and weight, a negative linear relationship between HSI with Fork length, weight and GSI. The Muscle tissue: There were significant positive linear relationships between accumulations of V, Fe with Fork length and weight factors and as well as GSI with Cd, V, Fe, Pb, Fork length and weight,a negative linear relationship between HSI with Fork length, weight, Cd, Fe and GSI. The results of Mann-Whitney U tests (P≤0.05) show that there were significant differences between summer and autumn from heavy metal contents in the studied tissues point of view. The only exceptions were for Ni in the liver, gonads and muscle and as well as there were significant differences between male and female from heavy metal contents in the studied tissues. The only exceptions were for Pb in muscle, Ni in liver, gonad and muscle, V in muscle, and Cd and Fe in gonads.

Gone in 0.6 seconds: the encoding of motor memories depends on recent sensorimotor states.

Real-world tasks often require movements that depend on a previous action or on changes in the state of the world. Here we investigate whether motor memories encode the current action in a manner that depends on previous sensorimotor states. Human subjects performed trials in which they made movements in a randomly selected clockwise or counterclockwise velocity-dependent curl force field. Movements during this adaptation phase were preceded by a contextual phase that determined which of the two fields would be experienced on any given trial. As expected from previous research, when static visual cues were presented in the contextual phase, strong interference (resulting in an inability to learn either field) was observed. In contrast, when the contextual phase involved subjects making a movement that was continuous with the adaptation-phase movement, a substantial reduction in interference was seen. As the time between the contextual and adaptation movement increased, so did the interference, reaching a level similar to that seen for static visual cues for delays >600 ms. This contextual effect generalized to purely visual motion, active movement without vision, passive movement, and isometric force generation. Our results show that sensorimotor states that differ in their recent temporal history can engage distinct representations in motor memory, but this effect decays progressively over time and is abolished by ∼600 ms. This suggests that motor memories are encoded not simply as a mapping from current state to motor command but are encoded in terms of the recent history of sensorimotor states.

中国西部亚热带常绿阔叶林木本植物小枝功能生态学初步研究

常绿阔叶林以其富饶的生物资源、丰富的生物多样性和巨大的生态与环境效益引起了人们越来越大的重视，它的研究已成为国际植被科学界关注的主题之一。我国分布着世界上面积最大的亚热带常绿阔叶林，在世界植被中具有重要地位，它的分布表现出明显的地带性差异，存在着多样的植物群系及其对应的气候特征。但是在植物功能性状领域，与全球范围其它生物群系相比，常绿阔叶林物种的研究较少，其功能性状间、功能性状与环境间的关系尚不清晰。 本研究以常绿阔叶林木本植物的当年生小枝为对象，试图从小枝水平上的生物量分配格局、叶片大小与数量的权衡关系、小枝茎的构型效应、叶片元素化学计量学，以及小枝大小的成本与效益分析等方面，较为系统地揭示小枝水平上的植物功能性状间及其与气候间的关系。因此，在华西雨屏带内部的不同纬度设置峨眉－青城－雷波－平武的温度梯度进行比较，并对有降水差异的川西南偏湿性（雷波）与偏干性常绿阔叶林（西昌）进行对比研究，同时在不同山体进行不同海拔梯度的比较研究。 本文主要研究结果如下： （1）小枝生物量分配格局叶水平上，叶片重－叶柄重（Y轴vs.X轴,下同）呈斜率小于1的异速生长关系，表明叶柄对叶内部的生物量分配影响显著。小枝水平上，叶和茎的生物量以及它们与小枝总生物量间基本呈等速生长关系，表明大的小枝或大叶物种不一定在叶生物量的分配上占优势。不同生活型间，在小枝或者茎的生物量一定时，常绿物种叶片的生物量比例较落叶物种稍高。与温度和水分较优越（峨眉及其低海拔）的生境相比，在相对低湿（螺髻）与低温（平武）的生境中的植物会减少对叶的投入而增加对支撑部分的投资比例。 （2）小枝叶片大小与数量的权衡无论是不同气候带还是不同生活型以及不同海拔梯度，叶片大小与出叶强度基本都是呈负的等速生长关系，表明了叶片大小－数量在小枝水平上的权衡。在不同气候梯度的对比中，叶片数量（出叶强度）一定时，高温和高水分生境（峨眉）比低温（平武）和低湿（螺髻山）生境中的物种的叶片大小（质量和面积）更大，表明不同生境的比较中，小的叶片可能具有较高的出叶强度和更高的适合度收益。“出叶强度优势”（Leafingintensitypremium）假说可能不适宜解释不同生境物种叶片大小差异。 （3）小枝茎的构型效应虽然茎长和茎径与叶片大小都呈正相关关系，与出叶强度都呈负相关关系，但茎长/茎径比与叶/茎生物量之比呈负相关关系；与叶片的大小呈负相关关系，与出叶强度呈正相关关系。这说明小枝构型能影响小枝叶/茎生物量分配和叶大小－数量的权衡关系。其影响机制可能是小枝内部的顶端优势。另外，茎长/茎径比在低湿和低温等不利生境中的植物中较高，而在降水和温度较适宜环境中较低。 （4）叶片C、N、P化学计量学N含量和P含量，C/N比和比叶重（LMA,leafmassperarea）呈正的等速生长关系，而N和LMA，P和LMA呈负的等速生长关系。在LMA一定时，C/N比随着生境胁迫压力的增加而降低，N、P含量随着生境压力的增加而增加。在P含量一定时，N含量随着生境压力的增加而降低，即N/P比在生境条件较优（峨眉及其低海拔）时较高。常绿和落叶植物叶片的N/P比没有差异，在LMA一定时，常绿植物的N、P含量较高、C/N比较低。总之，植物的C、N、P化学计量学特征受叶片属性如LMA与气候，及其相互作用的影响。 （5）小枝大小的代价与效益分析、TLA与小枝总重总叶面积（TLA,totalleafarea，Y轴，下同）与总叶重（X轴）均呈斜率小于1的异速生长关系，TLA与小枝横切面积呈斜率为1的等速生长关系。表明叶片面积的增加总是小于叶重和小枝总重的增加，随着小枝的增大，它的叶面积支撑效率下降。在热量和降水优越的生境（峨眉及其低海拔）中，相同小枝重或者相同茎横切面积的小枝，其叶面积支撑效率较低湿与低温环境下（螺髻山、平武及高海拔）的高。 总体上，本文初步研究了小枝水平上可能存在的以下三种权衡关系：叶－茎生物量分配权衡；叶片大小－数量的权衡；小枝茎长－茎径的权衡关系，以及气候要素等对这三种权衡关系的影响。在此基础上，我们还讨论了这些权衡关系的可能形成机制，及其与物种生态适应的联系。本研究丰富了生活史对策中关于权衡关系的研究内容，为我国常绿阔叶林功能生态学研究积累了材料。 Evergreen broad-leaved forests are attracting much more attention from vegetation ecologists than ever before because of their abundant nature resource and biological diversity, and also great ecological benefits. China has the largest distribution of subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forests (temperate rainforests) that are typical and representative in the world. The forests span over more than ten degrees in latitude and more than 30 degrees in longitude, providing an ideal place to study plant functional ecology, i.e., the climatic effect on plant functional traits and the relationship between the traits. However, relative to the other biomes, there are few studies addressing functional ecology of the plant species from subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forests. In this study, I focused on the leaf size-twig size spectrum of the woody species of subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forests in southwestern china. I collected data on leaf size and number, twig size in terms of both mass and volume, and stem architecture from five temperate mountains, and then I analyzed the relationships between leaf and stem biomass and between leaf size and number, the effect of stem length/diameter ratio on biomass allocation and on the relationship between leaf size and number, leaf C:N:P stoichiometry, and the twig efficiency of supporting leaf area in relation to twig size. I also addressed the climate effect on the spectrum. The temperature gradient from warm to cool sites was represented by Emei Mountain, Qingchengshan, Leibo, and Pingwu, and the rainfall gradient was assumed to emerge from the comparison between Leibo (High) and Luojishan (Low). In addition, altitudinal effects were analyzed with comparisons between low and high altitudes for each mountains. My main results are as follows. Isometric relationships were found between leaf mass and twig mass and between lamina mass and twig mass, suggesting that the biomass allocation to leaves or laminas was independent of twig mass. Petiole mass disproportionably increase with respect to lamina mass and twig mass, indicating the importance of leaf petioles to the within-twig biomass allocation. In addition, the investigated species tended to have a larger leaf and lamina mass, but a smaller stem mass at a given twig mass at favorable environments including warm and humid sites or at low altitude than unfavorable habitats, which might be due to the large requirements in physical support and transporting safety for the species living at unfavorable conditions. Moreover, the evergreen species invested more in leaves and laminas than the deciduous at given stem or twig biomass within any specified habitats. Negative, isometric scaling relationships between leaf number and size broadly existed in the species regardless of climate, altitude, and life forms, suggesting a leaf size/number trade-off within twigs. Along the climatic gradients, at given leaf number or leafing intensity, the leaves were larger in the favorable environments than the poor habitats. This suggested that the fitness benefit gained by small leaves could be larger than that with high leafing intensity in the stressful sites. I concluded that the “leafing intensity premium” hypothesis was not appropriate to interpreting between-habitat variation in leaf size. Both stem length and diameter were positively correlated to leaf size but negatively correlated to leafing intensity. The ratio of stem length to diameter was negatively correlated to leaf mass fraction, and it was negatively correlated to leaf size but positively correlated to leafing intensity. This suggested that the stem architecture influenced twig biomass allocation and the relationship between leaf size and number. The mechanism underlying the architectural effect might lie in the apical dominance within twig. Moreover, the ratio was greater in unfavorable habitats but smaller in favorable environments. Positive, isometric relationships were found between N and P contents per leaf mass, and between C/N ratio and leaf mass per area (LMA), but N and P contents scaled negatively to LMA. C/N ratio decreased but N and P increased with increasing habitat stress at a given LMA. N content declined with increasing habitat stress at given P content. These indicated that N/P and C/N were higher but LMA was lower in favorable habitats than in the other circumstances. The evergreen and deciduous species were non-heterogeneous in N/P, but the evergreen species have higher N and P contents and lower C/N than the deciduous ones. In general, C:N:P stoichiometry were related to both climatic conditions and other important functional traits like LMA. Total leaf area (TLA) allometricly scaled to leaf mass with a slope shallower than 1, similar to the relationship between TLA and total twig mass (leaf mass plus stem mass), suggesting that TLA failed to keep pace with the increase of leaf mass and twig size. However, TLA scaled isometricly to twig cross-sectional area. Thus, it could be inferred that the twig efficiency of displaying leaf area decreased with increasing twig size. In addition, the efficiency at a given twig size was large in favorable than unfavorable habitats. In general, in this preliminary study, I studied three tradeoff relationships within twigs, i.e., between leaf and stem biomass, between leaf number and size, and between stem length and diameter, as well as the climatic effect on the relationships. I discussed the mechanisms underlying the tradeoff relationships in view of biophysics and eco-physiology of plants. I believe that this study can serve as important materials advancing plant functional ecology of subtropical forest and that it will improve the understanding of life history strategies of plants from this particular biome.

贡嘎山植物小枝功能性状在不同生活型和不同海拔间的比较研究

植物功能生态学研究不仅提供了植物生理生态学与生态系统生态学的连接，还为植物种群生活史对策研究提供了材料。Westoby 等 (2002) 提出了利用植物功能性状变量的主导维度来确定和量化植物生活史的生态适应策略。在他们所提出四个主导维度中，叶大小－小枝大小是研究相对较少的一维；其内部各组分的关系、对环境的响应，以及与其它重要维度的关系，目前的理解非常有限。 本研究以贡嘎山不同海拔不同功能群物种为研究对象，采用种间比较和系统发生独立性比较等研究方法，系统研究了植物的功能特征及其相关性在不同生境及不同功能群间的差异，旨在分析不同功能群物种的叶大小－小枝大小的成本和收益。其研究结果将有助于我们理解植物生活史对策的进化，进而理解物种共存和维持物种多样性的机制。主要研究结果如下： 1. 叶大小－小枝大小关系 小枝茎横截面积与单叶面积和总叶面积均呈异速生长关系，即总叶面积和单叶面积的增加比茎横截面积的增加速度快。但是，总叶面积和叶片干重的增加却基本上与小枝茎干重的增加等速。系统发生独立性比较研究的结果与此相一致。表明，在某一给定的茎投入时，至少大叶大枝物种不比小叶小枝物种在支撑叶面积和叶片干重方面具有优势。同时，在某一给定的小枝茎投入时，常绿阔叶物种比落叶阔叶物种支撑更少的叶面积。在茎干重与总叶面积的关系中，落叶复叶物种比落叶单叶物种具有更高的y轴截距，表明复叶物种比单叶物种在展叶面积方面更有效。复叶物种与单叶物种相比，通常具有较大的叶大小和小枝大小。 2. 叶大小－叶数量关系 叶大小与数量间在不同的叶片习性、不同的叶片形态以及不同的生境类型的物种间均存在稳定的负的等速生长关系，且这种关系在系统发生独立性比较时依然成立。然而，在某一给定的出叶强度 (单位小枝的叶数量) 时，常绿阔叶物种比落叶物种具有更小的叶面积。而在给定体积基础上的出叶强度时，落叶复叶物种的叶面积显著大于落叶单叶物种，且复叶物种比单叶物种具有更大的叶大小和更小的出叶强度。但是，叶大小与数量间的关系在不同的海拔间并没有显著的差异。 3. 小枝大小－总叶面积关系 在不同的生活型或不同的生境下，小枝上总叶面积与茎干重和小枝干重均呈正的异速生长关系，且斜率显著小于1.0，表明小枝上总叶面积的增加都不能赶上小枝及茎大小的增加。这种“收益递减”表明随着小枝干重的增加，光截取的收益递减。此外，叶面积比 (总叶面积与小枝干重的比值) 与单叶干重呈显著负相关关系，系统发生独立性比较的结果与此相一致。根据以上结果，可以推测，大叶的物种在质量较好的生境中出现，而群落内部小枝茎的寿命较长的物种可以拥有较大的叶片。 4. 叶片色素浓度－LMA关系 随着海拔的升高，阔叶木本植物和草本植物的叶片色素浓度减少，叶绿素a/b和类胡萝卜素/叶绿素比值以及比叶重 (LMA) 增加。然而，在草本植物中的色素浓度、色素比值和LMA的变化比阔叶木本植物的更明显。同时，LMA与叶片色素浓度呈负相关关系，但是在落叶物种中的LMA对色素浓度的影响比常绿阔叶物种更强烈。总之，草本植物的叶片特征对海拔梯度的变化似乎比木本植物更敏感，LMA对叶片色素的保护作用在落叶物种中比在常绿阔叶物种显得更重要。这些结果表明不同生活型物种可能采取不同的保护机制来降低叶绿体器官的损伤和增加他们的碳获取能力。 Studies on plant functional ecology not only bridge plant eco-physiology and ecosystem functioning, but also enrich plant population biology. As pointed out by Westoby et al (2002), plant life history strategies can be identified and quantified by four leading dimensions of variations in plant functional traits, i.e., seed size/output, leaf mass per area and leaf life span, plant height, and leaf size-twig size. Compared to the other dimensions, the cost/benefit of the leaf size-twig size spectrum has scarcely been analyzed in relation to environmental gradients and life form types, and the adaptive significance of this spectrum is not fully understood. In the present study, the relationships between functional traits of plant twigs are determined for the species with different life forms along an altitudinal gradient of Gongga Mountain with both cross-species analysis and evolutionary divergence analysis. The primary objective of this study is to examine the cost/benefit of leaf size-twig size in plants. The study results are supposed to provide insights into the understanding of the mechanism of species coexistences. The results are shown in the following. 1. The relationship between leaf size and twig size Twig cross-sectional area allometrically scaled with both individual leaf area and total leaf area supported by the twigs. However, the increase in total lamina mass/area was generally proportional to the increase in stem mass. These correlations between trait variations were significant in both interspecies analysis and phylogenetically independent comparison (PIC) analysis, which indicated that thick-twigged/large-leaved species, at least, do not have an advantage in supporting leaf/lamina area and lamina mass for the same twig stem investment than thin-twigged/ small-leaved species. Meanwhile, the evergreen broad-leaved species supported a smaller leaf area for the same twig stem investment in terms of both cross-sectional area and stem mass than the deciduous species. The deciduous compound-leaved species have a higher y-intercept in the scaling relationship of twig stem mass versus total leaf area than the deciduous simple-leaved species, indicating that compound-leaved species were more efficient in displaying leaf area. The compound-leaved species were larger in both leaf size and twig size than their counterpart in the present study. 2. The relationship between leaf size and leaf number Significantly negative and isometric scaling relationships between leaf size and leafing intensity (leaf number per twig mass or volume) were found to be consistently conserved across species independent of leaf habit, leaf form and habitat type. The negative correlations between leaf size and leafing intensity were also observed across correlated evolutionary divergences. However, leaf area was smaller in the evergreen broad-leaved species at a given leafing intensity than in the deciduous species. The deciduous compound-leaved deciduous species were higher in leaf area than deciduous simple-laved species at a given volume-based leafing intensity. Moreover, the compound-leaved deciduous species were larger in leaf size but smaller in leafing intensity than their simple counterparts. No significant difference was found in the scaling relationships between altitudes. 3. The relationship between twig size and total leaf area Leaf area was found to scale positively and allometrically with both stem and twig mass (stem mass plus leaf mass) with slopes significantly smaller than 1.0, independent of life form and habitat type, indicating that the increase in total leaf area fails to keep pace with increasing twig size and stem size. This ‘diminishing returns’ suggests that the benefit of light intercept decreased with increasing twig mass. Moreover, the leaf area ratio (the ratio of total leaf area to stem or twig mass) correlated negatively with individual leaf mass. The results of PIC were consistent with the correlations. According to the results, it is speculated that large-leaved species may be favored when habitat is good and when stem longevity are long within community. 4. The relationship between leaf pigment concentrations and leaf mass per area With increasing altitude, the concentrations of pigments decreased, but the ratios of chlorophyll a/b and carotenoid/chlorophyll, and LMA increased, in both the broad-leaved woody species and herbaceous species groups. However, the changes in the pigment concentrations, ratios and LMA were more profound in the herbaceous species than in the woody species. In addition, pigment concentrations were negatively correlated with LMA in each life form type and in the pooled dataset. However, the LMA effect on leaf pigment concentrations was more profound in the deciduous species than in the evergreen braode-leaved species. In general, herbaceous species seemed more sensitive to the increasing altitude compared to woody species, and LMA seemed to be a more important mechanism for protecting leaf pigments in deciduous species than in evergreen broad-leaved species. These results suggested that the species with different life forms may employ different protective mechanisms to decrease the chloroplast apparatus damage and increase their carbon gain.