崖柏属的系统发育与生物地理学研究－兼论广义柏科4CL基因的进化

第三纪末期和第四纪的气候变冷使广泛分布于北半球的暖温带/亚热带生物区系的分布区破碎化，形成了各种洲际间断分布格局。其中东亚—北美东部间断分布最为常见，自林奈时代起就吸引了植物学家们的关注。为了探讨这一地理分布格局的形成过程，前人开展了大量的研究工作，包括间断类群分布的比较、种间关系的经典分类学和化学分类学研究、地理分布的分支分析、遗传距离的估算等。随着分子系统学的发展，在各级分类阶元水平上探讨植物系统发育关系的研究取得了重大进展，很多植物类群的系统发育得到了重建，这使东亚－北美间断分布类群的历史生物地理学研究变得更为切实可行。同时，生物地理学的理论有了新的发展，新的分析方法不断涌现，化石记录及古气候和古地质资料得到大量积累，为深入探讨东亚—北美间断分布提供了条件。目前，已有20 多个东亚－北美间断分布的植物类群被详细研究，丰富了我们对这一现象的认知。然而，以往的研究多基于单亲遗传的叶绿体基因和（或）PCR 直接测序所得的nrDNA ITS 序列，在探讨杂交和网状进化方面存在较大的局限性。在本研究中，我们选取了崖柏属（Thuja L.）这一典型东亚—北美间断分布类群，用来自叶绿体和细胞核的多个基因序列重建其系统发育，探讨其地理分布格局的形成过程，并讨论不同遗传体系的多基因联合分析在植物生物地理学研究中的应用。此外，我们还初步探讨了低拷贝核基因4CL 在广义柏科的进化式样。 1、崖柏属的系统发育和生物地理学研究 崖柏属共 5 种，其中3 种分布于东亚，2 种分别分布于北美东、西部。我们用5 个叶绿体DNA 片段（rpl16 内含子, atpI-rpoC1、trnS-trnfM 和trnS-trnG 基因间区以及trnT-trnF 区）和3 个核基因片段（ITS，LEAFY，4CL）的序列重建了崖柏属的系统发育。发现：（1）基因树拓扑结构的冲突存在于叶绿体基因和核基因之间，甚至不同的核基因之间，说明崖柏属曾发生多次种间杂交并导致网状进化;（2）崖柏属中存在两个种对，即日本香柏－崖柏和朝鲜崖柏－北美香柏;（3）朝鲜崖柏在叶绿体和核基因树上位于不同的位置，可能因古老的杂交和叶绿体捕获所致;（4）北美乔柏的叶绿体基因存在镶嵌式的变异，可能在物种形成过程中发生了叶绿体重组。根据分子钟度量结果，崖柏属两个种对的分化时间为51.1±3.96 Mya，日本香柏和崖柏的分化时间为23.7±5.04 Mya，朝鲜崖柏和北美乔柏的分化时间为14.7±6.06 Mya。 基于多个基因的系统发育分析、DIVA 分析、化石证据和分子钟度量，我们推测崖柏属在古新世或更早的时候起源于北美高纬度地区，并通过白令陆桥扩散到东亚，然后通过隔离分化形成日本香柏－崖柏这一种对。白令陆桥和阿留申陆桥可能在崖柏属的进一步迁移中起了重要介导作用，使崖柏属内发生了多次种间杂交事件，并导致了崖柏－日本香柏和朝鲜崖柏－北美香柏这两种主要的叶绿体类型间的重组以及朝鲜崖柏对北美香柏叶绿体基因的捕获。携带重组叶绿体DNA 的杂交个体迁入北美西部，产生了北美乔柏。根据分子钟估算结果，该迁移事件可能发生在中新世。 鉴于以往对东亚—北美间断分布植物类群的分子系统学研究多基于单亲遗传的叶绿体基因和（或）PCR 直接测序的ITS 数据，这些类群中的网状进化事件可能被低估。同时，我们的结论也部分解释了为什么东亚、北美东部、北美西部三者间的关系存在很多争议：频繁的杂交和渐渗模糊了种间的系统发育关系。因此，我们建议在生物地理学研究中用来源于多个基因组的多基因分析，特别是用单/低拷贝核基因。 2、广义柏科4CL 基因进化的初步研究 广义柏科是松杉类植物中唯一在南、北半球广泛分布的类群，该科中既有古老的孑遗属和寡种属，也有第三纪起源、呈南北半球间断分布的类群。研究4CL 基因在这一类群中的进化，有助于探讨低拷贝核基因在松杉类植物中的进化式样和规律。4CL 在植物次生化合物的生物合成中起重要作用，它催化激活4-香豆酸和一些相关的底物形成不同的辅酶A，促进各种苯丙烷类的代谢。 我们从广义柏科 17 个属中扩增并克隆到23 条4CL 基因序列。基因结构和系统发育分析表明，4CL 在广义柏科中分为4CLI 和4CL II 两大类，二者间的序列相似性为67-70％，进化速率也有很大差异。RT-PCR 结果证明这两种类型均能转录，推测它们都具有功能，且基因结构的差异和序列之间的高度分化暗示这两大类可能执行不同的功能。在4CL 基因树中，落羽杉亚科、北美红杉亚科、狭义柏科的单系都得到了支持。尽管4CL 在广义柏科中的类型及拷贝数还有待研究，但4CLI 很可能以单拷贝或低拷贝存在，其高变的内含子序列可以用来探讨种间的系统发育关系。

伞形科囊瓣芹属的系统学研究

囊瓣芹属Pternopetalum Franchet是伞形科Apiaceae/Umbelliferae芹亚科Apioideae芹族Apieae重要成员。全属包括约32个分类群（包括变种），分布于南朝鲜、日本、中国的西南部和邻近的喜马拉雅地区，中国西南部的横断山区是其多样性中心。典型的东亚特有格局和对东亚亚热带森林环境的偏爱是其东亚区系故有份子的特征。 基于19个标本馆标本材料、野外调查以及相应的实验证据，本博士论文从三个研究主题对囊瓣芹属展开了全面而系统的研究。一是通过标本观察和野外调查，利用标本管理系统BRAHMS和表型分析软件包DELTA系统，完成了囊瓣芹属的世界性分类修订；二是基于上述的分类方案，选择伞形科其它属的44个种作为参考性类群（Reference taxa），利用Winclada, NONA和MESQUITE软件包开展了分支系统学研究；三是基于坐标化的点分布数据，利用DIVA-GIS系统的生态位模型，进行潜在分布预测和生态地理分布特征的分析。研究的主要初步结论如下： 一、分类修订 根据对19个标本馆标本材料（包括85个模式采集）的考证，以及对云南、四川、贵州等地野外居群的观察，结合DELTA系统的表型分析，本研究确认囊瓣芹属包含14个种，提出了14个新异名，属下分为东亚囊瓣芹组Sect. I. Pteridophyllae H. Wolff和囊瓣芹组Sect. II. Pternopetalum H. Wolff两个组的分类方案。前者包括东亚囊瓣芹P. tanakae (Sav. & Franchet) Hand.-Mazz.、高山囊瓣芹P. subalpinum Hand.-Mazz.、洱源囊瓣芹P. molle (Franchet) Hand.-Mazz.等5个种；后者包括五匹青P. vulgare (Dunn) Hand.-Mazz.、囊瓣芹P. davidii Franchet和澜沧囊瓣芹P. delavayi (Franchet) Hand.-Mazz.等9个种。萼齿、花柱基、和花柱的形态是区别两个组比较好的形态学特征。叶的着生位置、最终末回裂片的形状（是否异形）、分裂回数以及伞形花序着生的位置和果棱表面的附属构造是种间识别有用的检索特征。 二、系统发育分析 根据如上的14个种的分类方案，另外选取了伞形科小芹属Sinocarum H. Wolff、丝瓣芹属Acronema Falc. ex Edgew.和鸭儿芹属Cryptotaenia L.等10个属共44种作为参考类群，基于63个广义形态学性状和58个种的形态学矩阵，利用最大简约法对囊瓣芹属进行了分支分析。结果表明，囊瓣芹属的14个种与日本特有单型的仙洞草Chamaele decumbens (Thunb.)Makino.形成一个单独分支，处于分支图的基部位置。表明囊瓣芹属与鸭儿芹属有较近的亲缘关系。长枝吸引可能是造成Chamaele Miq.与东亚囊瓣芹分支的非正常聚合的原因。囊瓣芹属可能是单系内群，但它与Chamaele Miq.属间关系需要进一步研究。属下形成以五匹青P. vulgare和东亚囊瓣芹P. tanakae为代表的两个主干演化线。分支进化（Cladogenesis）在两个主干演化线形成了形态和地理上对称分布的“种对”。根据形态特征的变异和地理分布，这些“种对”分为三种类型：1、形态上多变而地理上广布的类型，以东亚囊瓣芹P. tanakae和五匹青P. vulgare为代表；2、形态上稳定地理上狭域特有的类型，以薄叶囊瓣芹P. leptophyllum (Dunn)Hand.-Mazz. 和川鄂囊瓣芹P. rosthornii (Diels) Hand.-Mazz.为代表；3、形态上趋同而多变，地理分布上几乎完全重叠的类型，以洱源囊瓣芹P. molle和澜沧囊瓣芹P. delavayi为代表。 性状状态的分析显示，属下形态特征的趋异具有较强的同朔性。不等长的伞辐和花梗，以及囊状的花瓣基部三个形态学特征可以标识包括仙洞草在内的囊瓣芹分支。祖征状态的重建表明，东亚囊瓣芹分支相对保留了更多的祖征，是属下相对原始的类型；五匹青分支是后期生境需求的特化，适应潮湿和荫蔽环境的衍生类型。 三、生态地理分布 基于1128个坐标化的点分布数据和生态位模型，利用地理信息系统软件包DIVA-GIS对囊瓣芹属的物种多样性、现代地理分布、潜在分布进行了分析。结果表明，二郎山-峨眉山地区以及重庆金佛山及其临近地区是囊瓣芹属的两个主要的多样性中心。分布区内局部尺度上的异常性多样性（Diversity abnormalies）可能有两个来源：一是高的异质性生境条件下物种形成速率的差异；二是中国西南山地的“冰原岛峰效应”（Nunataks），比如峨眉山和金佛山，对属的早期演化线成员所起到的“避难所”（Refuge）的作用。 所预测的潜在分布范围与观察到的地理分布范围是一致的，说明对特化的气候忍耐性是限制囊瓣芹属物种地理分布的主要因素。温度和降水的季节性变化对囊瓣芹属代表中的地理分布限制作用比较大。亚热带-高山针阔常绿林是属下物种比较适宜的生境。属的地理分布可能形成于中新世以后，生态位的保守性是解释囊瓣芹属东亚本土就地分化和多样化的原因。属的分布范围的形成可能经历了一个早期南退西进的过程，后期分布范围变化可能主要是东西方向上的迁移和扩展。喜马拉雅—横断山—峨眉山/金佛山/神农架—日本、南朝鲜一线是囊瓣芹属多样化过程中分布范围东西延伸的重要通道。喜马拉雅—中国西南—日本朝鲜亚热带森林植被的完整性和连续性是囊瓣芹属演化和分布区形成的基本条件。

An ecological characterization of the Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary Region: oceanographic, biogeographic, and contaminants assessment

The mission of NOAA’s National Marine Sanctuary Program (NMSP) is to serve as the trustee for a system of marine protected areas, to conserve, protect, and enhance their biodiversity, ecological integrity, and cultural legacy while facilitating compatible uses. Since 1972, thirteen National Marine Sanctuaries, representing a wide variety of ocean environments, have been established, each with management goals tuned to their unique diversity. Extending from Cape Ann to Cape Cod across the mouth of Massachusetts Bay, Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary (NMS) encompasses 2,181 square kilometers of highly productive, diverse, and culturally unique Federal waters. As a result of its varied seafloor topography, oceanographic conditions, and high primary productivity, Stellwagen Bank NMS is utilized by diverse assemblages of seabirds, marine mammals, invertebrates, and fish species, as well as containing a number of maritime heritage resources. Furthermore, it is a region of cultural significance, highlighted by the recent discovery of several historic shipwrecks. Officially designated in 1992, Stellwagen Bank became the Nation’s twelfth National Marine Sanctuary in order to protect these and other unique biological, geological, oceanographic, and cultural features of the region. The Stellwagen Bank NMS is in the midst of its first management plan review since designation. The management plan review process, required by law, is designed to evaluate, enhance, and guide the development of future research efforts, education and outreach, and the management approaches used by Sanctuaries. Given the ecological and physical complexity of Stellwagen Bank NMS, burgeoning anthropogenic impacts to the region, and competing human and biological uses, the review process was challenged to assimilate and analyze the wealth of existing scientific knowledge in a framework which could enhance management decision-making. Unquestionably, the Gulf of Maine, Massachusetts Bay, and Stellwagen Bank-proper are extremely well studied systems, and in many regards, the scientific information available greatly exceeds that which is available for other Sanctuaries. However, the propensity of scientific information reinforces the need to utilize a comprehensive analytical approach to synthesize and explore linkages between disparate information on physical, biological, and chemical processes, while identifying topics needing further study. Given this requirement, a partnership was established between NOAA’s National Marine Sanctuary Program (NMSP) and the National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science (NCCOS) so as to leverage existing NOAA technical expertise to assist the Sanctuary in developing additional ecological assessment products which would benefit the management plan review process.

An ecological characterization of Salt River Bay National Historical Park and Ecological Preserve, U.S. Virgin Islands

Salt River Bay National Historical Park and Ecological Preserve (hereafter, SARI or the park) was created in 1992 to preserve, protect, and interpret nationally significant natural, historical, and cultural resources (United States Congress 1992). The diverse ecosystem within it includes a large mangrove forest, a submarine canyon, coral reefs, seagrass beds, coastal forests, and many other natural and developed landscape elements. These ecosystem components are, in turn, utilized by a great diversity of flora and fauna. A comprehensive spatial inventory of these ecosystems is required for successful management. To meet this need, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Biogeography Program, in consultation with the National Park Service (NPS) and the Government of the Virgin Islands Department of Planning and Natural Resources (VIDPNR), conducted an ecological characterization. The characterization consists of three complementary components: a text report, digital habitat maps, and a collection of historical aerial photographs. This ecological characterization provides managers with a suite of tools that, when coupled with the excellent pre-existing body of work on SARI resources, enables improved research and monitoring activities within the park (see Appendix F for a list of data products).

槽舌兰属的分子系统学研究兼叶表皮研究

槽舌兰属为(Holcoglossum schltr.)兰科树兰亚科万代兰族指甲兰亚族植物，大部分种类为中国特有种，部分种类分布到越南、泰国、缅甸等国家和地区。本研究利用ITS、trnL-F和matK序列重建了槽舌兰属的系统树，在此基础上对其和植物地理进行了初步探讨并对该属植物的叶表皮特征演化进行了探讨。具体结果如下： 1．槽舌兰的分子系统学研究及分子植物地理学 对槽舌兰属的13个种的12个种进行了取样（H. quasipinifolium未包括），而横断山地区所有已知的槽舌兰属植物的居群进行了取样，共有25个取样代表了槽舌兰属。运用ITS、trnL-F和matK序列重建了槽舌兰属的系统树。槽舌兰属得到了很强的单系支持，并且分为了从南到北的三个分支，其中高山类群得到了很强的支持，尽管该类群内部系统关系没有得到解决。本研究推测槽舌兰属是从南部的热带地区向北部扩散，并在横断山地区辐射分化。槽舌兰高山类群的辐射分化和该地区的迅速隆起密切相关。 2．槽舌兰属的叶表皮演化 在光学显微镜下和电子显微镜下，观察了21个代表槽舌兰属8个种以及5个来自Vanda concolor和 Aerides ordorata的叶表皮样品的常规特征，包括表皮细胞的形状，密度，垂周壁式样，气孔类型，气孔指数，气孔长/宽（L/W）, 气孔大小等等。槽舌兰属的气孔除H. omeiense外，其它上、下表皮均有气孔分布，是比较进化的类型。表皮细胞为多边形，垂周壁平直或弓形。槽舌兰属的上表皮细胞都大于下表皮的细胞。与万代兰族的其它类群相似。结果表明，气孔类型和气孔指数与属的系统发育关系一致，可以作为一个很好的特征。 3．槽舌兰属高山组的物种形成初探 槽舌兰属高山组植物在形态上、传粉系统以及生境都有了很大的分化，但该类群在分子序列上却几乎没有区别，本文推测该类群是近期的辐射分化形成的。

Mapping the shallow-water coral ecosystems of the Freely Associated States: an implementation plan

This Freely Associated States Shallow-water Coral Ecosystem Mapping Implementation Plan (FAS MIP) presents a framework for the development of shallow-water (~0–40 m; 0–22 fm) benthic habitat and possibly bathymetric maps of critical areas of the Freely Associated States (FAS). The FAS is made up of three self-governing groups of islands and atolls—the Republic of Palau (Palau), the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM), and the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI)—that are affiliated with the United States through Compacts of Free Association. This MIP was developed with extensive input from colleges, national and state regulatory and management agencies, federal agencies, non-governmental organizations, and individuals involved in or supporting the conservation and management of the FAS’s coral ecosystems. A list of organizations and individuals that provided input to the development of this MIP is provided in Appendix 1. This MIP has been developed to complement the Coral Reef Mapping Implementation Plan (2nd Draft) released in 1999 by the U.S. Coral Reef Task Force’s Mapping and Information Synthesis Working Group. That plan focused on mapping United States and FAS shallow-water (then defined as <30 m) coral reefs by 2009, based on available funding and geographic priorities, using primarily visual interpretation of aerial photography and satellite imagery. This MIP focuses on mapping the shallow-water (now defined as 0–40 m, rather than 0–30 m) coral ecosystems of the FAS using a suite of technologies and map development procedures. Both this FAS MIP and the 1999 Coral Reef Mapping Implementation Plan (2nd Draft) support to goals of the National Action Plan to Conserve Coral Reefs (U.S. Coral Reef Task Force, 2000). This FAS MIP presents a framework for mapping the coral ecosystems of the FAS and should be considered an evolving document. As priorities change, funding opportunities arise, new data are collected, and new technologies become available, the information presented herein will change.

Mapping southern Florida's shallow-water coral ecosystems: an implementation plan

The Southern Florida Shallow-water Coral Ecosystem Mapping Implementation Plan (MIP) discusses the need to produce shallow-water (~0-40 m; 0-22 fm) benthic habitat and bathymetric maps of critical areas in southern Florida and moderate-depth (~40-200 m; 22 -109 fm) bathymetric maps for all of Florida. The ~0-40 m depth regime generally represents where most hermatypic coral species are found and where most direct impacts from pollution and coastal development occur. The plan was developed with extensive input from over 90 representatives of state regulatory and management agencies, federal agencies, universities, and non-governmental organizations involved in the conservation and management of Florida’s coral ecosystems. Southern Florida’s coral ecosystems are extensive. They extend from the Dry Tortugas in the Florida Keys as far north as St Lucie Inlet on the Atlantic Ocean coast and Tarpon Springs on the Gulf of Mexico coast. Using 10 fm (18 m) depth curves on nautical charts as a guide, southern Florida has as much as 84 percent (30,801 sq km) of 36,812 sq km of potential shallow-water (<10 fm; <18 m) coral ecosystems the tropical and subtropical U.S. Moreover, southern Florida’s coral ecosystems contribute greatly to the regional economy. Coral ecosystem-related expenditures generated $4.4 billion in sales, income, and employment and created over 70,000 full-time and part-time jobs in the region during the recent 12-month periods when surveys were conducted.

A biogeographic assessment of the Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary: a review of boundary expansion concepts for NOAA’s National Marine Sanctuary Program

The priority management goal of the National Marine Sanctuaries Program (NMSP) is to protect marine ecosystems and biodiversity. This goal requires an understanding of broad-scale ecological relationships and linkages between marine resources and physical oceanography to support an ecosystem management approach. The Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary (CINMS) is currently reviewing its management plan and investigating boundary expansion. A management plan study area (henceforth, Study Area) was described that extends from the current boundary north to the mainland, and extends north to Point Sal and south to Point Dume. Six additional boundary concepts were developed that vary in area and include the majority of the Study Area. The NMSP and CINMS partnered with NOAA’s National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science Biogeography Team to conduct a biogeographic assessment to characterize marine resources and oceanographic patterns within and adjacent to the sanctuary. This assessment includes a suite of quantitative spatial and statistical analyses that characterize biological and oceanographic patterns in the marine region from Point Sal to the U.S.-Mexico border. These data were analyzed using an index which evaluates an ecological “cost-benefit” within the proposed boundary concepts and the Study Area. The sanctuary resides in a dynamic setting where two oceanographic regimes meet. Cold northern waters mix with warm southern waters around the Channel Islands creating an area of transition that strongly influences the regions oceanography. In turn, these processes drive the biological distributions within the region. This assessment analyzes bathymetry, benthic substrate, bathymetric life-zones, sea surface temperature, primary production, currents, submerged aquatic vegetation, and kelp in the context of broad-scale patterns and relative to the proposed boundary concepts and the Study Area. Boundary cost-benefit results for these parameters were variable due to their dynamic nature; however, when analyzed in composite the Study Area and Boundary Concept 2 were considered the most favorable. Biological data were collected from numerous resource agencies and university scientists for this assessment. Fish and invertebrate trawl data were used to characterize community structure. Habitat suitability models were developed for 15 species of macroinvertebrates and 11 species of fish that have significant ecological, commercial, or recreational importance in the region and general patterns of ichthyoplankton distribution are described. Six surveys of ship and plane at-sea surveys were used to model marine bird diversity from Point Arena to the U.S.-Mexico border. Additional surveys were utilized to estimate density and colony counts for nine bird species. Critical habitat for western snowy plover and the location of California least tern breeding pairs were also analyzed. At-sea surveys were also used to describe the distribution of 14 species of cetaceans and five species of pinnipeds. Boundary concept cost-benefit indices revealed that Boundary Concept 2 and the Study Area were most favorable for the majority of the species-specific analyses. Boundary Concept 3 was most favorable for bird diversity across the region. Inadequate spatial resolution for fish and invertebrate community data and incompatible sampling effort information for bird and mammal data precluded boundary cost-benefit analysis.

A marine biogeographic assessment of the northwestern Hawaiian Islands

The mission of NOAA’s Office of National Marine Sanctuaries (ONMS) is to serve as the trustee for a system of marine protected areas, to conserve, protect and enhance biodiversity. To assist in accomplishing this mission, the ONMS has developed a partnership with NOAA’s Center for Coastal Monitoring and Assessment’s Biogeography Branch (CCMA-BB) to conduct biogeographic assessments of marine resources within and adjacent to the marine waters of NOAA’s National Marine Sanctuaries (Kendall and Monaco, 2003). Biogeography is the study of spatial and temporal distributions of organisms, their associated habitats, and the historical and biological factors that influence species’ distributions. Biogeography provides a framework to integrate species distributions and life history data with information on the habitats of a region to characterize and assess living marine resources within a sanctuary. The biogeographic data are integrated in a Geographical Information System (GIS) to enable visualization of species’ spatial and temporal patterns, and to predict changes in abundance that may result from a variety of natural and anthropogenic perturbations or management strategies (Monaco et al., 2005; Battista and Monaco, 2004). Defining biogeographic patterns of living marine resources found throughout the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI) was identified as a priority activity at a May 2003 workshop designed to outline scientifi c and management information needs for the NWHI (Alexander et al., 2004). NOAA’s Biogeography Branch and the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument (PMNM) under the direction of the ONMS designed and implemented this biogeographic assessment to directly support the research and management needs of the PMNM by providing a suite of spatially-articulated products in map and tabular formats. The major fi ndings of the biogeographic assessment are organized by chapter and listed below.

A Biogeographic assessment off North/Central California: In support of the National Marine Sanctuaries of Cordell Bank, Gulf of the Farallones and Monterey Bay. Phase II - Environmental setting and update to marine birds and animals

NOAA’s National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science (NCCOS) conducts and supports research, monitoring, assessments, and technical assistance to meet NOAA’s coastal stewardship and management responsibilities. In 2001 the Biogeography Branch of NCCOS partnered with NOAA’s National Marine Sanctuary Program (NMSP) to conduct biogeographic assessments to support the management plan updates for the sanctuaries. The first biogeographic assessment conducted in this partnership focused on three sanctuaries off north/ central California: Cordell Bank, Gulf of the Farallones and Monterey Bay. Phase I of this assessment was conducted from 2001 to 2004, with the primary goal to identify and gather the best available data and information to characterize and identify important biological areas and time periods within the study area. The study area encompasses the three sanctuaries and extends along the coastal ocean off California from Pt. Arena to Pt. Sal (35°-39°N). This partnership project was lead by the NCCOS Biogeography Branch, but included over 90 contributors and 25 collaborating institutions. Phase I results include: 1) a report on the overall assessment that includes hundreds of maps, tables and analyses; 2) an ecological linkage report on the marine and estuarine ecosystems along the coast of north/central California, and 3) related geographic information system (GIS) data and other summary data files, which are available for viewing and download in several formats at the following website: http://ccma.nos.noaa.gov/products/biogeography/canms_cd/welcome.html Phase II (this report) was initiated in the Fall of 2004 to complete the analyses of marine mammals and update the marine bird colony information. Phase II resulted in significant updates to the bird and mammal chapters, as well as adding an environmental settings chapter, which contains new and existing data and maps on the study area. Specifically, the following Phase II topics and items were either revised or developed new for Phase II: •environmental, ecological settings – new maps on marine physiographic features, sea surface temperature and fronts, chlorophyll and productivity •all bird colony or roost maps, including a summary of marine bird colonies •updated at-sea data CDAS data set (1980-2003) •all mammal maps and descriptions •new overall density maps for eight mammal species •new summary pinniped rookery/haulout map •new maps on at-sea richness for cetaceans and pinnipeds •most text in the mammal chapter •new summary tables for mammals on population status and spatial and temporal patterns

Survey and impact assessment of derelict fish traps in St. Thomas and St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands

Since 2001, NOAA National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science (NCCOS), Center for Coastal Monitoring and Assessment’s (CCMA) Biogeography Branch (BB) has been working with federal and territorial partners to characterize, monitor, and assess the status of the marine environment across the U.S. Virgin Islands (USVI). At the request of the St. Thomas Fisherman’s Association (STFA) and NOAA Marine Debris Program, CCMA BB developed new partnerships and novel technologies to scientifically assess the threat from derelict fish traps (DFTs). Traps are the predominant gear used for finfish and lobster harvesting in St. Thomas and St. John. Natural phenomena (ground swells, hurricanes) and increasing competition for space by numerous user groups have generated concern about increasing trap loss and the possible ecological, as well as economic, ramifications. Prior to this study, there was a general lack of knowledge regarding derelict fish traps in the Caribbean. No spatially explicit information existed regarding fishing effort, abundance and distribution of derelict traps, the rate at which active traps become derelict, or areas that are prone to dereliction. Furthermore, there was only limited information regarding the impacts of derelict traps on natural resources including ghost fishing. This research identified two groups of fishing communities in the region: commercial fishing that is most active in deeper waters (30 m and greater) and an unknown number of unlicensed subsistence and or commercial fishers that fish closer to shore in shallower waters (30 m and less). In the commercial fishery there are an estimated 6,500 active traps (fish and lobster combined). Of those traps, nearly 8% (514) were reported lost during the 2008-2010 period. Causes of loss/dereliction include: movement of the traps or loss of trap markers due to entanglement of lines by passing vessels; theft; severe weather events (storms, large ground swells); intentional disposal by fishermen; traps becoming caught on various bottom structures (natural substrates, wrecks, etc.); and human error.

Sampling design tool for ArcGIS: Instruction manual.[for ESRI ArcGIS 10.0 Service Pack 3 or higher]

The Biogeography Branch’s Sampling Design Tool for ArcGIS provides a means to effectively develop sampling strategies in a geographic information system (GIS) environment. The tool was produced as part of an iterative process of sampling design development, whereby existing data informs new design decisions. The objective of this process, and hence a product of this tool, is an optimal sampling design which can be used to achieve accurate, highprecision estimates of population metrics at a minimum of cost. Although NOAA’s Biogeography Branch focuses on marine habitats and some examples reflects this, the tool can be used to sample any type of population defined in space, be it coral reefs or corn fields.

Coral reef ecosystems of St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands: spatial and temporal patterns in fish and benthic communities (2001-2009)

Scientific and anecdotal observations during recent decades have suggested that the structure and function of the coral reef ecosystems around St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands have been impacted adversely by a wide range of environmental stressors. Major stressors included the mass die-off of the long-spined sea urchin (Diadema antillarum) in the early 1980s, a series of hurricanes (David and Frederick in 1979, and Hugo in 1989), overfishing, mass mortality of Acropora species and other reef-building corals due to disease and several coral bleaching events. In response to these adverse impacts, the National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science (NCCOS), Center for Coastal Monitoring and Assessment, Biogeography Branch (CCMA-BB) collaborated with federal and territorial partners to characterize, monitor, and assess the status of the marine environment around the island from 2001 to 2012. This 13-year monitoring effort, known as the Caribbean Coral Reef Ecosystem Monitoring Project (CREM), was supported by the NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program as part of their National Coral Reef Ecosystem Monitoring Program. This technical memorandum contains analysis of nine years of data (2001-2009) from in situ fish belt transect and benthic habitat quadrat surveys conducted in and around the Virgin Islands National Park (VIIS) and the Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument (VICR). The purpose of this document is to: 1) Quantify spatial patterns and temporal trends in (i) benthic habitat composition and (ii) fish species abundance, size structure, biomass, and diversity; 2) Provide maps showing the locations of biological surveys and broad-scale distributions of key fish and benthic species and assemblages; and 3) Compare benthic habitat composition and reef fish assemblages in areas under NPS jurisdiction with those in similar areas not managed by NPS (i.e., outside of the VIIS and VICR boundaries). This report provides key information to help the St. John management community and others understand the impacts of natural and man-made perturbations on coral reef and near-shore ecosystems. It also supports ecosystem-based management efforts to conserve the region’s coral reef and related fauna while maintaining the many goods and ecological services that they offer to society.

Land-sea characterization of the St. Croix East End Marine Park, U.S. Virgin Islands

The St. Croix East End Marine Park (STXEEMP) was established in 2003 as the first multi-use marine park managed by the U.S. Virgin Islands Department of Planning and Natural Resources. It encompasses an area of approximately 155 km2 and is entirely within Territorial waters which extend up to 3 nautical miles from shore. As stated in the 2002 management plan, the original goals were to: protect and maintain the biological diversity and other natural values of the area; promote sound management practices for sustainable production purposes; protect the natural resource base from being alienated for other land use purposes that would be detrimental to the area’s biological diversity; and to contribute to regional and national development (The Nature Conservancy, 2002). At the time of its establishment, there were substantial data gaps in knowledge about living marine resources in the St. Croix, and existing data were inadequate for establishing baselines from which to measure the future performance of the various management zones within the park. In response to these data gaps, National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science (NCCOS), Center for Coastal Monitoring and Assessment, Biogeography Branch (CCMA-BB) worked with territorial partners to characterize and assess the status of the marine environment in and around the STXEEMP and land-based stressors that affect them. This project collected and analyzed data on the distribution, diversity and landscape condition of marine communities across the STXEEMP. Specifically, this project characterized (1) landscape and adjacent seascape condition relevant to threats to coral reef ecosystem health, and (2) the marine communities within STXEEMP zones to increase local knowledge of resources exposed to different regulations and stressors.

Benthic habitats of Fish Bay, Coral Bay and the St. Thomas East End Reserve

NOAA’s National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science Biogeography Branch has mapped and characterized large portions of the coral reef ecosystems inside the U.S. coastal and territorial waters, including the U.S. Caribbean. The complementary protocols used in these efforts have enabled scientists and managers to quantitatively and qualitatively compare marine ecosystems in tropical U.S. waters. The Biogeography Branch used similar protocols to generate new benthic habitat maps for Fish Bay, Coral Bay and the St. Thomas East End Reserve (STEER). While this mapping effort marks the third time that some of these shallow-water habitats (≤40 m) have been mapped, it is the first time that nearly 100% of the seafloor has been characterized in each of these areas. It is also the first time that high resolution imagery describing seafloor depth has been collected in each of these areas. Consequently, these datasets provide new information describing the distribution of coral reef ecosystems and serve as a spatial baseline for monitoring change in the Fish Bay, Coral Bay and the STEER. Benthic habitat maps were developed for approximately 64.3 square kilometers of seafloor in and around Fish Bay, Coral Bay and the STEER. Twenty seven percent (17.5 square kilometers) of these habitat maps describe the seafloor inside the boundaries of the STEER, the Virgin Islands National Park and the Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument. The remaining 73% (46.8 square kilometers) describe the seafloor outside of these MPA boundaries. These habitat maps were developed using a combination of semi-automated and manual classification methods. Habitats were interpreted from aerial photographs and LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) imagery. In total, 155 distinct combinations of habitat classes describing the geology and biology of the seafloor were identified from the source imagery.