Lymphocyte peroxiredoxin-2 levels are depleted one week after ultra-endurance exercise

Peroxiredoxin-2 (PRDX-2) belongs to a family of thiol containing proteins and is important for antioxidant defense, redox signaling and cell function. This study examined whether lymphocyte PRDX-2 levels are altered over one month following ultra-endurance exercise. Nine middle-aged men participated in a 145 mile ultra-endurance running race event. Blood drawing was undertaken immediately before, upon completion/retirement, and at one, seven and twenty eight-days following the race. PRDX-2 levels were examined at each time-point, for all participants (n=9) by reducing SDS-PAGE and western blotting. Further analysis using non-reducing SDS-PAGE and western blotting was undertaken in a sub-group of men who completed the race (n = 4) to investigate PRDX-2 oligomeric state (indicative of oxidation state). Ultra-endurance exercise caused a significant alteration in lymphocyte PRDX-2 levels (F(4,32) 3.409, p=0.020, η2 =0.299): seven-days after the race PRDX-2 levels fell by 70% (p=0.013) and at twenty eight-days after the race returned to near-normal levels. PRDX-2 dimers (intracellular reduced PRDX-2 monomers) in three of the four participants, who finished the race, were increased upon race completion. Furthermore, PRDX-2 monomers (intracellular over-oxidized PRDX-2 monomers) in two of these four participants were present upon race completion, but absent seven-days after the race. This study found that PRDX-2 levels in lymphocytes were reduced below normal levels seven-days after an ultra-endurance running race. We suggest that excessive reactive oxygen species production, induced by ultra-endurance exercise may, in part, explain the depletion of lymphocyte PRDX-2 by triggering its turnover after oxidation.

Investigating the ability of antibodies to recognize specific oxidized protein epitopes

There is a growing awareness that inflammatory diseases have an oxidative pathology, which can result in specific oxidation of amino acids within proteins. Antibody-based techniques for detecting oxidative posttranslational modifications (oxPTMs) are often used to identify the level of protein oxidation. There are many commercially available antibodies but some uncertainty to the potential level of cross reactivity they exhibit; moreover little information regarding the specific target epitopes is available. The aim of this work was to investigate the potential of antibodies to distinguish between select peptides with and without oxPTMs. Two peptides, one containing chlorotyrosine (DY-Cl-EDQQKQLC) and the other an unmodified tyrosine (DYEDQQKQLC) were synthesized and complementary anti-sera were produced in sheep using standard procedures. The anti-sera were tested using a half-sandwich ELISA and the anti-serum raised against the chloro-tyrosine containing peptide showed increased binding to the chlorinated peptide, whereas the control anti-serum bound similarly to both peptides. This suggested that antibodies can discriminate between similar peptide sequences with and without an oxidative modification. A peptide (STSYGTGC) and its variants with chlorotyrosine or nitrotyrosine were produced. The anti-sera showed substantially less binding to these alternative peptides than to the original peptides the anti-sera were produced against. Work is ongoing to test commercially available antibodies against the synthetic peptides as a comparison to the anti-sera produced in sheep. In conclusion, the antisera were able to distinguish between oxidatively modified and unmodified peptides, and two different sequences around the modification site.

A deimmunised form of the ribotoxin, α-sarcin, lacking CD4+ T cell epitopes and its use as an immunotoxin warhead

Fungal ribotoxins that block protein synthesis can be useful warheads in the context of a targeted immunotoxin. α-Sarcin is a small (17 kDa) fungal ribonuclease produced by Aspergillus giganteus that functions by catalytically cleaving a single phosphodiester bond in the sarcin–ricin loop of the large ribosomal subunit, thus making the ribosome unrecognisable to elongation factors and leading to inhibition of protein synthesis. Peptide mapping using an ex vivo human T cell assay determined that α-sarcin contained two T cell epitopes; one in the N-terminal 20 amino acids and the other in the C-terminal 20 amino acids. Various mutations were tested individually within each epitope and then in combination to isolate deimmunised α-sarcin variants that had the desired properties of silencing T cell epitopes and retention of the ability to inhibit protein synthesis (equivalent to wild-type, WT α-sarcin). A deimmunised variant (D9T/Q142T) demonstrated a complete lack of T cell activation in in vitro whole protein human T cell assays using peripheral blood mononuclear cells from donors with diverse HLA allotypes. Generation of an immunotoxin by fusion of the D9T/Q142T variant to a single-chain Fv targeting Her2 demonstrated potent cell killing equivalent to a fusion protein comprising the WT α-sarcin. These results represent the first fungal ribotoxin to be deimmunised with the potential to construct a new generation of deimmunised immunotoxin therapeutics.

Structural Basis for Clonal Diversity of the Public T Cell Response to Dominant Epitopes from Cytomegalovirus and Influenza

A diverse T cell receptor (TCR) repertoire is a prerequisite for effective viral clearance. However, knowledge of human TCR repertoire to defined viral antigens is limited. Recent advances in high-throughput sequencing (HTS) and single-cell sorting have revolutionized the study of human TCR repertoires to different types of viruses. In collaboration with the laboratory of Dr. Nan-ping Weng (National Institute on Aging, NIH), we applied unique molecular identifier (UMI)-labelled HTS, single-cell paired TCR analysis, surface plasmon resonance, and X-ray crystallography to exhaustively interrogate CD8+ TCR repertoires specific for cytomegalovirus (CMV) and influenza A (Flu) in HLA-A2+ humans. Our two CMV-specific TCR-pMHC structures and two Flu-specific TCR-pMHC structures provide a plausible explanation for the much higher diversity of CMV-specific than Flu-specific TCR repertoires in humans. Our comprehensive biochemical and structural portrait of two different anti-viral T cell responses may contribute to the future development of predictors of immunity or disease at the individual level.

Cell surface Glut1 levels distinguish human CD4 and CD8 T lymphocyte subsets with distinct effector functions

International audience

Étude du niveau de B Lymphocyte Stimulator (BLyS) et de son impact sur les lymphocytes B en relation avec l’infection et la résistance au virus d’immunodéficience humaine (VIH) chez des travailleuses du sexe au Bénin

L’infection au VIH s’accompagne souvent de dérégulations du compartiment des lymphocytes B qui nuisent à la génération de réponses efficaces. En effet, détectées tôt après l’infection, ces dérégulations perdurent, ne sont pas totalement restaurées par la thérapie, et mènent souvent à des manifestations auto-immunes et lymphomes. Une étude longitudinale de notre groupe, effectuée avec des cellules mononucléées du sang circulant provenant de patients VIH+ avec différents types de progression clinique, a démontré qu’un niveau élevé de BLyS chez des individus VIH+ progresseurs était associé à une dérégulation des fréquences de populations de cellules B avec augmentation de cellules innées de la zone marginale (MZ) présentant des caractéristiques d’immaturité et d’activation. Au contraire, chez des individus VIH+ non-progresseurs avirémiques ou contrôleurs d’élite, les niveaux de BLyS étaient dans la normale et ce sont les fréquences de cellules B MZ plus matures qui étaient diminuées. La résistance au VIH pourrait aussi impliquer le contrôle de BLyS et son impact sur les cellules B. De ce fait, nous avons préalablement recruté une cohorte de travailleuses du sexe (TS) à Cotonou (Bénin) dans laquelle nous avons identifié des femmes qui demeurent séronégatives malgré une exposition soutenue au virus. Nous avons mesuré les niveaux de BLyS dans le sang et dans les lavages cervico-vaginaux (CVL) de TS VIH- et les avons comparés à ceux mesurés chez des TS VIH+ et un groupe contrôle de non-TS VIH- . Nous avons trouvé que les niveaux de BLyS dans le sang et le CVL des TS VIH- étaient inférieurs à ceux des TS VIH+ et des non-TS VIH-. Le niveau d’expression de BLyS à la surface des lymphocytes T, monocytes et cellules dendritiques de TS VIH- était augmenté, mais à un niveau moindre que les TS VIH+. Chez les TS VIH+, les hauts niveaux de BLyS étaient concomitants avec une dérégulation du compartiment B caractérisée par une hyperglobulinémie, une augmentation de la fréquence de populations avec un profil immature/inné et une plus grande proportion de plasmablastes IgG vs IgA. Au contraire, les niveaux inférieurs de BLyS dans le sang des TS VIH- coïncident avec un compartiment B préservé, révélant que les lymphocytes B MZ peuvent être impliqués dans l’immunité naturelle au VIH. Ces résultats démontrent l’importance du contrôle des niveaux de BLyS et du maintien de l’intégrité du compartiment B dans la résistance au VIH.

Étude du niveau de B Lymphocyte Stimulator (BLyS) et de son impact sur les lymphocytes B en relation avec l’infection et la résistance au virus d’immunodéficience humaine (VIH) chez des travailleuses du sexe au Bénin

L’infection au VIH s’accompagne souvent de dérégulations du compartiment des lymphocytes B qui nuisent à la génération de réponses efficaces. En effet, détectées tôt après l’infection, ces dérégulations perdurent, ne sont pas totalement restaurées par la thérapie, et mènent souvent à des manifestations auto-immunes et lymphomes. Une étude longitudinale de notre groupe, effectuée avec des cellules mononucléées du sang circulant provenant de patients VIH+ avec différents types de progression clinique, a démontré qu’un niveau élevé de BLyS chez des individus VIH+ progresseurs était associé à une dérégulation des fréquences de populations de cellules B avec augmentation de cellules innées de la zone marginale (MZ) présentant des caractéristiques d’immaturité et d’activation. Au contraire, chez des individus VIH+ non-progresseurs avirémiques ou contrôleurs d’élite, les niveaux de BLyS étaient dans la normale et ce sont les fréquences de cellules B MZ plus matures qui étaient diminuées. La résistance au VIH pourrait aussi impliquer le contrôle de BLyS et son impact sur les cellules B. De ce fait, nous avons préalablement recruté une cohorte de travailleuses du sexe (TS) à Cotonou (Bénin) dans laquelle nous avons identifié des femmes qui demeurent séronégatives malgré une exposition soutenue au virus. Nous avons mesuré les niveaux de BLyS dans le sang et dans les lavages cervico-vaginaux (CVL) de TS VIH- et les avons comparés à ceux mesurés chez des TS VIH+ et un groupe contrôle de non-TS VIH- . Nous avons trouvé que les niveaux de BLyS dans le sang et le CVL des TS VIH- étaient inférieurs à ceux des TS VIH+ et des non-TS VIH-. Le niveau d’expression de BLyS à la surface des lymphocytes T, monocytes et cellules dendritiques de TS VIH- était augmenté, mais à un niveau moindre que les TS VIH+. Chez les TS VIH+, les hauts niveaux de BLyS étaient concomitants avec une dérégulation du compartiment B caractérisée par une hyperglobulinémie, une augmentation de la fréquence de populations avec un profil immature/inné et une plus grande proportion de plasmablastes IgG vs IgA. Au contraire, les niveaux inférieurs de BLyS dans le sang des TS VIH- coïncident avec un compartiment B préservé, révélant que les lymphocytes B MZ peuvent être impliqués dans l’immunité naturelle au VIH. Ces résultats démontrent l’importance du contrôle des niveaux de BLyS et du maintien de l’intégrité du compartiment B dans la résistance au VIH.

CDKN2A mutation in a non-FAMMM kindred with cancers at multiple sites results in a functionally abnormal protein

The CDKN2A gene encodes p16 (CDKN2A), a cell-cycle inhibitor protein which prevents inappropriate cell cycling and, hence, proliferation. Germ-line mutations in CDKN2A predispose to the familial atypical multiple-mole melanoma (FAMMM) syndrome but also have been seen in rare families in which only 1 or 2 individuals are affected by cutaneous malignant melanoma (CMM). We therefore sequenced exons 1alpha and 2 of CDKN2A using lymphocyte DNA isolated from index cases from 67 families with cancers at multiple sites, where the patterns of cancer did not resemble those attributable to known genes such as hMLH1, hMLH2, BRCA1, BRCA2, TP53 or other cancer susceptibility genes. We found one mutation, a mis-sense mutation resulting in a methionine to isoleucine change at codon 53 (M531) of exon 2. The individual tested had developed 2 CMMs but had no dysplastic nevi and lacked a family history of dysplastic nevi or CMM. Other family members had been diagnosed with oral cancer (2 persons), bladder cancer (1 person) and possibly gall-bladder cancer. While this mutation has been reported in Australian and North American melanoma kindreds, we did not observe it in 618 chromosomes from Scottish and Canadian controls. Functional studies revealed that the CDKN2A variant carrying the M531 change was unable to bind effectively to CDK4, showing that this mutation is of pathological significance. Our results have confirmed that CDKN2A mutations are not limited to FAMMM kindreds but also demonstrate that multi-site cancer families without melanoma are very unlikely to contain CDKN2A mutations.

Evaluation of novel Streptococcus pyogenes vaccine candidates incorporating multiple conserved sequences from the C-repeat region of the M-protein

A major challenge for Streptococcus pyogenes vaccine development is the identification of epitopes that confer protection from infection by multiple S. pyogenes M-types. Here we have identified and characterised the distribution of common variant sequences from individual repeat units of the C-repeat region (CRR) of M-proteins representing 77 different M-types. Three polyvalent fusion vaccine candidates (SV1, SV2 and SV3) incorporating the most common variants were subsequently expressed and purified, and demonstrated to be alpha-helical by Circular Dichroism (CD), a secondary conformational characteristic of the CRR in the M-protein. Antibodies raised against each of these constructs recognise M-proteins that vary in their CRR, and bind to the surface of multiple S. pyogenes isolates. Antibodies raised against SV1, containing five variant sequences, also kill heterologous S. pyogenes isolates in in vitro bactericidal assays. Further structural characterisation of this construct demonstrated the conformation of SV1 was stable at different pHs, and thermal unfolding of SV1 a reversible process. Our findings demonstrate that linkage of multiple variant sequences into a single recombinant construct overcomes the need to embed the variant sequences in foreign helix promoting flanking sequences for conformational stability, and demonstrates the viability of the polyvalent candidates as global S. pyogenes vaccine candidates.

Human herpesvirus 8 load and progression of AIDS-related Kaposi sarcoma lesions

Introduction—Human herpesvirus 8 (HHV8) is necessary for Kaposi sarcoma (KS) to develop, but whether peripheral blood viral load is a marker of KS burden (total number of KS lesions), KS progression (the rate of eruption of new KS lesions), or both is unclear. We investigated these relationships in persons with AIDS. Methods—Newly diagnosed patients with AIDS-related KS attending Mulago Hospital, in Kampala, Uganda, were assessed for KS burden and progression by questionnaire and medical examination. Venous blood samples were taken for HHV8 load measurements by PCR. Associations were examined with odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) from logistic regression models and with t-tests. Results—Among 74 patients (59% men), median age was 34.5 years (interquartile range [IQR], 28.5-41). HHV8 DNA was detected in 93% and quantified in 77% patients. Median virus load was 3.8 logs10/106 peripheral blood cells (IQR 3.4-5.0) and was higher in men than women (4.4 vs. 3.8 logs; p=0.04), in patients with faster (>20 lesions per year) than slower rate of KS lesion eruption (4.5 vs. 3.6 logs; p<0.001), and higher, but not significantly, among patients with more (>median [20] KS lesions) than fewer KS lesions (4.4 vs. 4.0 logs; p=0.16). HHV8 load was unrelated to CD4 lymphocyte count (p=0.23). Conclusions—We show significant association of HHV8 load in peripheral blood with rate of eruption of KS lesions, but not with total lesion count. Our results suggest that viral load increases concurrently with development of new KS lesions.

Hodgkin lymphoma and immunodeficiency in persons with HIV/AIDS

In persons with HIV/AIDS (PWHAs), Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) risk is increased. However, HL incidence in PWHAs has unexpectedly increased since highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) was introduced. We linked nationwide HIV/AIDS and cancer registry data from 1980 through 2002. Immunity was assessed by CD4 T-lymphocyte counts at AIDS onset. Annual HL incidence rates were calculated for 4 through 27 months after AIDS onset. During 477 368 person years (py's) of follow-up in 317 428 persons with AIDS (PWAs), 173 HL cases occurred (36.2 per 105 py's). Incidence was significantly higher in 1996 to 2002 than earlier. Incidence in PWAs with 150 to 199 CD4 cells/μL was 53.7 per 105 py's, whereas in PWAs with fewer than 50 CD4 cells/μL, it was 20.7 per 105 py's (Ptrend = .002). For each HL subtype, incidence decreased with declining CD4 counts, but nodular sclerosing decreased more precipitously than mixed cellularity, thereby increasing the proportion of mixed cellularity HL seen in PWAs. We conclude that HL incidence is lower with severe immunosuppression than with moderate immunosuppression, and HAART-related improvements in CD4 counts likely explain the increasing HL incidence in PWHAS observed since 1996. With more severe immunosuppression, nodular sclerosing HL becomes infrequent, explaining the higher proportion of mixed cellularity HL found in PWAs. Pathogenesis implications are discussed.

Ureaplasma parvum : understanding the complexities of intra-amniotic infection in an ovine model

The human Ureaplasma species are the most frequently isolated bacteria from the upper genital tract of pregnant women and can cause clinically asymptomatic, intra-uterine infections, which are difficult to treat with antimicrobials. Ureaplasma infection of the upper genital tract during pregnancy has been associated with numerous adverse outcomes including preterm birth, chorioamnionitis and neonatal respiratory diseases. The mechanisms by which ureaplasmas are able to chronically colonise the amniotic fluid and avoid eradication by (i) the host immune response and (ii) maternally-administered antimicrobials, remain virtually unexplored. To address this gap within the literature, this study investigated potential mechanisms by which ureaplasmas are able to cause chronic, intra-amniotic infections in an established ovine model. In this PhD program of research the effectiveness of standard, maternal erythromycin for the treatment of chronic, intra-amniotic ureaplasma infections was evaluated. At 55 days of gestation pregnant ewes received an intra-amniotic injection of either: a clinical Ureaplasma parvum serovar 3 isolate that was sensitive to macrolide antibiotics (n = 16); or 10B medium (n = 16). At 100 days of gestation, ewes were then randomised to receive either maternal erythromycin treatment (30 mg/kg/day for four days) or no treatment. Ureaplasmas were isolated from amniotic fluid, chorioamnion, umbilical cord and fetal lung specimens, which were collected at the time of preterm delivery of the fetus (125 days of gestation). Surprisingly, the numbers of ureaplasmas colonising the amniotic fluid and fetal tissues were not different between experimentally-infected animals that received erythromycin treatment or infected animals that did not receive treatment (p > 0.05), nor were there any differences in fetal inflammation and histological chorioamnionitis between these groups (p > 0.05). These data demonstrate the inability of maternal erythromycin to eradicate intra-uterine ureaplasma infections. Erythromycin was detected in the amniotic fluid of animals that received antimicrobial treatment (but not in those that did not receive treatment) by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry; however, the concentrations were below therapeutic levels (<10 – 76 ng/mL). These findings indicate that the ineffectiveness of standard, maternal erythromycin treatment of intra-amniotic ureaplasma infections may be due to the poor placental transfer of this drug. Subsequently, the phenotypic and genotypic characteristics of ureaplasmas isolated from the amniotic fluid and chorioamnion of pregnant sheep after chronic, intra-amniotic infection and low-level exposure to erythromycin were investigated. At 55 days of gestation twelve pregnant ewes received an intra-amniotic injection of a clinical U. parvum serovar 3 isolate, which was sensitive to macrolide antibiotics. At 100 days of gestation, ewes received standard maternal erythromycin treatment (30 mg/kg/day for four days, n = 6) or saline (n = 6). Preterm fetuses were surgically delivered at 125 days of gestation and ureaplasmas were cultured from the amniotic fluid and the chorioamnion. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of erythromycin, azithromycin and roxithromycin were determined for cultured ureaplasma isolates, and antimicrobial susceptibilities were different between ureaplasmas isolated from the amniotic fluid (MIC range = 0.08 – 1.0 mg/L) and chorioamnion (MIC range = 0.06 – 5.33 mg/L). However, the increased resistance to macrolide antibiotics observed in chorioamnion ureaplasma isolates occurred independently of exposure to erythromycin in vivo. Remarkably, domain V of the 23S ribosomal RNA gene (which is the target site of macrolide antimicrobials) of chorioamnion ureaplasmas demonstrated significant variability (125 polymorphisms out of 422 sequenced nucleotides, 29.6%) when compared to the amniotic fluid ureaplasma isolates and the inoculum strain. This sequence variability did not occur as a consequence of exposure to erythromycin, as the nucleotide substitutions were identical between chorioamnion ureaplasmas isolated from different animals, including those that did not receive erythromycin treatment. We propose that these mosaic-like 23S ribosomal RNA gene sequences may represent gene fragments transferred via horizontal gene transfer. The significant differences observed in (i) susceptibility to macrolide antimicrobials and (ii) 23S ribosomal RNA sequences of ureaplasmas isolated from the amniotic fluid and chorioamnion suggests that the anatomical site from which they were isolated may exert selective pressures that alter the socio-microbiological structure of the bacterial population, by selecting for genetic changes and altered antimicrobial susceptibility profiles. The final experiment for this PhD examined antigenic size variation of the multiple banded antigen (MBA, a surface-exposed lipoprotein and predicted ureaplasmal virulence factor) in chronic, intra-amniotic ureaplasma infections. Previously defined ‘virulent-derived’ and ‘avirulent-derived’ clonal U. parvum serovar 6 isolates (each expressing a single MBA protein) were injected into the amniotic fluid of pregnant ewes (n = 20) at 55 days of gestation, and amniotic fluid was collected by amniocentesis every two weeks until the time of near-term delivery of the fetus (at 140 days of gestation). Both the avirulent and virulent clonal ureaplasma strains generated MBA size variants (ranging in size from 32 – 170 kDa) within the amniotic fluid of pregnant ewes. The mean number of MBA size variants produced within the amniotic fluid was not different between the virulent (mean = 4.2 MBA variants) and avirulent (mean = 4.6 MBA variants) ureaplasma strains (p = 0.87). Intra-amniotic infection with the virulent strain was significantly associated with the presence of meconium-stained amniotic fluid (p = 0.01), which is an indicator of fetal distress in utero. However, the severity of histological chorioamnionitis was not different between the avirulent and virulent groups. We demonstrated that ureaplasmas were able to persist within the amniotic fluid of pregnant sheep for 85 days, despite the host mounting an innate and adaptive immune response. Pro-inflammatory cytokines (interleukin (IL)-1â, IL-6 and IL-8) were elevated within the chorioamnion tissue of pregnant sheep from both the avirulent and virulent treatment groups, and this was significantly associated with the production of anti-ureaplasma IgG antibodies within maternal sera (p < 0.05). These findings suggested that the inability of the host immune response to eradicate ureaplasmas from the amniotic cavity may be due to continual size variation of MBA surface-exposed epitopes. Taken together, these data confirm that ureaplasmas are able to cause long-term in utero infections in a sheep model, despite standard antimicrobial treatment and the development of a host immune response. The overall findings of this PhD project suggest that ureaplasmas are able to cause chronic, intra-amniotic infections due to (i) the limited placental transfer of erythromycin, which prevents the accumulation of therapeutic concentrations within the amniotic fluid; (ii) the ability of ureaplasmas to undergo rapid selection and genetic variation in vivo, resulting in ureaplasma isolates with variable MICs to macrolide antimicrobials colonising the amniotic fluid and chorioamnion; and (iii) antigenic size variation of the MBA, which may prevent eradication of ureaplasmas by the host immune response and account for differences in neonatal outcomes. The outcomes of this program of study have improved our understanding of the biology and pathogenesis of this highly adapted microorganism.

An improved model of tumour-immune system interactions

The immune system plays an important role in defending the body against tumours and other threats. Currently, mechanisms involved in immune system interactions with tumour cells are not fully understood. Here we develop a mathematical tool that can be used in aiding to address this shortfall in understanding. This paper de- scribes a hybrid cellular automata model of the interaction between a growing tumour and cells of the innate and specific immune system including the effects of chemokines that builds on previous models of tumour-immune system interactions. In particular, the model is focused on the response of immune cells to tumour cells and how the dynamics of the tumour cells change due to the immune system of the host. We present results and predictions of in silico experiments including simulations of Kaplan-Meier survival-like curves.

Preparation, characterisation and in vivo osteogenesis of mesoporous bioactive glasses

Bone defects, especially large bone defects, remain a major challenge in orthopaedic surgery. Autologous bone transplantation is considered the most effective treatment, but insufficient donor tissue, coupled with concerns about donor site morbidity, has hindered this approach in large-scale applications. Alternative approaches include implanting biomaterials such as bioactive glass (BG), which has been widely used for bone defect healing, due to having generally good biocompatibility, and can be gradually biodegraded during the process of new bone formation. Mesoporous bioactive glass (MBG) is a newly developed bioactive glass which has been proven to have enhanced in-vitro bioactivity; however the in-vivo osteogenesis has not been studied. A critical problem in using the bone tissue engineering approach to restore large bone defects is that the nutrient supply and cell viability at the centre of the scaffold is severely hampered since the diffusion distance of nutrients and oxygen for cell survival is limited to 150-200µm. Cobalt ions has been shown to mimic hypoxia, which plays a pivotal role in coupling angiogenesis with osteogenesis in-vivo by activating hypoxia inducing factor-1α (HIF-1α) transcription factor, subsequently initiating the expression of genes associated with tissue regeneration. Therefore, one aim of this study is to investigate the in-vivo osteogenesis of MBG by comparison with BG and β-TCP, which are widely used clinically. The other aim is to explore hypoxia-mimicking biomaterials by incorporating Cobalt into MBG and β-TCP. MBG and β-TCP incorporated with 5% cobalt (5Co-MBG and 5CCP) have also been studied in-vivo to determine whether the hypoxic effect has a beneficial effect on the bone formation. The composition and microstructure of synthesised materials (BG, MBG, 5Co-MBG, 5CCP) were characterised, along with the mesopore properties of the MBG materials. Dissolution and cytotoxicity of the Co-containing materials were also investigated. Femoral samples with defects harvested at 4 and 8 weeks were scanned using micro-CT followed by processing for histology (H&E staining) to determine bone formation. Histology of MBG showed a slower rate of bone formation at 4 weeks than BG, however at 8 weeks it could be clearly seen that MBG had more bone formation. The in-vivo results show that the osteogenesis of MBG reciprocates the enhanced performance shown in-vitro compared to BG. Dissolution study showed that Co ions can be efficiently released from MBG and β-TCP in a controllable way. Low amounts of Co incorporated into the MBG and β-TCP showed no significant cytotoxicity and the Co-MBG powders maintained a mesopore structure although not as highly ordered as pure MBG. Preliminary study has shown that Co incorporated samples showed little to no bone formation, instead incurring high lymphocyte activity. Further studies need to be done on Co incorporated materials to determine the cause for high lymphocyte activity in-vivo, which appear to hinder bone formation. In conclusion, this study demonstrated the osteogenic activity of MBG and provided some valuable information of tissue reaction to Co-incorporated MBG and TCP materials.