Contractual Difficulties in Environmental Management and the Protection of Biodiversity: The Case of Conservation and Mitigation Banking

This paper offers a principal-agent model of feasible private contracting in mitigation and conservation banking aimed at the protection of natural habitat and bio-diversity of US wetlands and uplands. It is shown that while it is straightforward to design an incentive contract, such a contract may not achieve the federally mandated objective of no net loss of habitat. This is because the minimum payment required as an economic incentive to private agents may be greater than what they should receive for the habitat values that they actually created in the field. This possible problem is shown to derive from nonconvexity in the production possibility set between the biological value of land as natural habitat and in non-habitat uses such as in urban development. The paper concludes with a consideration of several institutional devises that may promote the convergence of private contracting and the attainment of no net loss. These include the payment of subsidies, greater accuracy in the identification of actual quality by the principal, and the use of several incentive alignment devises.

The normal range of the leukocyte count: Implications for surveillance of occupational and environmental exposure and the practice of preventive medicine

Leukopenia, the leukocyte count, and prognosis of disease are interrelated; a systematic search of the literature was undertaken to ascertain the strength of the evidence. One hundred seventy-one studies were found from 1953 onward pertaining to the predictive capabilities of the leukocyte count. Of those studies, 42 met inclusion criteria. An estimated range of 2,200cells/μL to 7,000cells/μL was determined as that which indicates good prognosis in disease and indicates the least amount of risk to an individual overall. Tables of the evidence are included indicating the disparate populations examined and the possible degree of association. ^

Environmental sustainability and the human element: Decision making in National Cancer Institute-designated cancer centers and Practice Greenhealth subscribing institutions

Background. Various aspects of sustainability have taken root in the hospital environment; however, decisions to pursue sustainable practices within the framework of a master plan are not fully developed in National Cancer Institute (NCI) -designated cancer centers and subscribing institutions to the Practice Greenhealth (PGH) listserv.^ Methods. This cross sectional study was designed to identify the organizational characteristics each study group pursed to implement sustainability practices, describe the barriers they encountered and reasons behind their choices for undertaking certain sustainability practices. A web-based questionnaire was pilot tested, and then sent out to 64 NCI-designated cancer centers and 1638 subscribing institutions to the PGH listserv.^ Results. Complete responses were received from 39 NCI-designated cancer centers and 58 subscribing institutions to the PGH listserv. NCI-designated cancer centers reported greater progress in integrating sustainability criteria into design and construction projects than hospitals of institutions subscribing to the PHG listserv (p-value = <0.05). Statistically significant differences were also identified between these two study groups in undertaking work life options, conducting energy usage assessments, developing energy conservation and optimization plans, implementing solid waste and hazardous waste minimization programs, using energy efficient vehicles and reporting sustainability progress to external stakeholders. NCI-designated cancer centers were further along in implementing these programs (p-value = <0.05). In comparing the self-identified NCI-designated cancer centers to centers that indicated they were both and NCI and PGH, the later had made greater progress in using their collective buying power to pursue sustainable purchasing practices within the medical community (p-value = <0.05). In both study groups, recycling programs were well developed.^ Conclusions. Employee involvement was viewed as the most important reason for both study groups to pursue recycling initiatives and incorporated environmental criteria into purchasing decisions. A written sustainability commitment did not readily translate into a high percentage that had developed a sustainability master plan. Coordination of sustainability programs through a designated sustainability professional was not being undertaken by a large number of institutions within each study group. This may be due to the current economic downturn or management's attention to the emerging health care legislation being debated in congress. ^ Lifecycle assessments, an element of a carbon footprint, are seen as emerging areas of opportunity for health care institutions that can be used to evaluate the total lifecycle costs of products and services.^

A comprehensive review of the environmental impacts and human health risks associated with the occurrence of waste pharmaceuticals in water sources of the United States, and policy implications

The occurrence of waste pharmaceuticals has been identified and well documented in water sources throughout North America and Europe. Many studies have been conducted which identify the occurrence of various pharmaceutical compounds in these waters. This project is an extensive review of the documented evidence of this occurrence published in the scientific literature. This review was performed to determine if this occurrence has a significant impact on the environment and public health. This project and review found that pharmaceuticals such as sex hormone drugs, antibiotic drugs and antineoplastic/cytostatic agents as well as their metabolites have been found to occur in water sources throughout the United States at levels high enough to have noticeable impacts on human health and the environment. It was determined that the primary sources of this occurrence of pharmaceuticals were waste water effluent and solid wastes from sewage treatment plants, pharmaceutical manufacturing plants, healthcare and biomedical research facilities, as well as runoff from veterinary medicine applications (including aquaculture). ^ In addition, current public policies of US governmental agencies such as the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA) have been evaluated to see if they are doing a sufficient job at controlling this issue. Specific recommendations for developing these EPA, FDA, and DEA policies have been made to mitigate, prevent, or eliminate this issue.^ Other possible interventions such as implementing engineering controls were also evaluated in order to mitigate, prevent and eliminate this issue. These engineering controls include implementing improved current treatment technologies such as the advancement and improvement of waste water treatment processes utilized by conventional sewage treatment and pharmaceutical manufacturing plants. In addition, administrative controls such as the use of “green chemistry” in drug synthesis and design were also explored and evaluated as possible alternatives to mitigate, prevent, or eliminate this issue. Specific recommendations for incorporating these engineering and administrative controls into the applicable EPA, FDA, and DEA policies have also been made.^

ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES AND LUNG CANCER RISK AMONG WOMEN IN HARRIS COUNTY, TEXAS, 1977-1980 (OCCUPATION, SMOKING, BYSTANDER)

Excessively high, accelerating lung cancer rates among women in Harris County, Texas, prompted this case-comparison study. Objectives were to compare patterns of employment, indirect exposures, and sociodemographic variables of lung cancer cases with comparison subjects (compeers) after standardizing for possible confounders, such as age and cigarette smoking. Lung cancer cases were microscopically confirmed, white, Harris County residents. Compeers, chosen from Medicare records and Texas Department of Public Safety records, were matched on gender, race, age, resident and vital status. Personal interviews were conducted with study subjects or next-of-kin. Industries and occupations were categorized as high risk, based on previous studies.^ Almost all cases (95.0%) and 60.0% of compeers smoked cigarettes. The odds ratio for lung cancer and smoking is 13.9. Stopping smoking between ages 30-50 years carries a lower risk than stopping at age 58 or more years. Women's employment in a high risk industry or occupation results in consistently elevated, smoking-adjusted odds ratios. Frequency and duration of employment demonstrate a moderate dose-response effect. A temporal association exists with employment in a high risk occupation during 1940-1949.^ No increased risk appeared with passive smoking. Husband's employment in a construction industry or a structural occupation significantly increased the smoking-adjusted odds ratios among cases and compeers (O.R. = 2.9, 2.2). Smoking-adjusted odds ratios increased significantly when women had resided with persons employed in cement (O.R. = 3.2) or insulation (O.R. = 5.5) manufacturing, or a high rise construction industry (O.R. = 2.4). A family history of lung cancer resulted in a two-fold increase in smoking-adjusted odds ratios. Vital status of compeers affected the odds ratios.^ Work-related exposures appear to increase the risk of lung cancer in women although cigarette smoking has the single highest odds ratio. Indirect exposure to certain employment also plays a significant role in lung cancer in women. Investigations of specific direct and indirect hazardous exposures in the workplace and home are needed. Cigarette smoking is as hazardous for women as for men. Smoking should be prevented and eliminated. ^

Environmental policy and knowledge. Copying with complexity through inclusive management

Scholars agree that governance of the public environment entails cooperation between science, policy and society. This requires the active role of public managers as catalysts of knowledge co-production, addressing participatory arenas in relation to knowledge integration and social learning. This paper deals with the question of whether public managers acknowledge and take on this task. A survey accessing Directors of Environmental Offices (EOs) of 64 municipalities was carried out in parallel for two regions - Tuscany (Italy) and Porto Alegre Metropolitan Region (Brazil). The survey data were analysed using the multiple correspondence method. Results showed that, regarding policy practices, EOs do not play the role of knowledge co-production catalysts, since when making environmental decisions they only use technical knowledge. We conclude that there is a gap between theory and practice, and identify some factors that may hinder local environmental managers in acting as catalyst of knowledge co-production, raising a further question for future research.

Environmental variables and multivariate seabed classification maps via k means clustering of Potter Cove, Antarctica, link to input and result files in GeoTIFF format

This study subdivides the Potter Cove, King George Island, Antarctica, into seafloor regions using multivariate statistical methods. These regions are categories used for comparing, contrasting and quantifying biogeochemical processes and biodiversity between ocean regions geographically but also regions under development within the scope of global change. The division obtained is characterized by the dominating components and interpreted in terms of ruling environmental conditions. The analysis includes in total 42 different environmental variables, interpolated based on samples taken during Australian summer seasons 2010/2011 and 2011/2012. The statistical errors of several interpolation methods (e.g. IDW, Indicator, Ordinary and Co-Kriging) with changing settings have been compared and the most reasonable method has been applied. The multivariate mathematical procedures used are regionalized classification via k means cluster analysis, canonical-correlation analysis and multidimensional scaling. Canonical-correlation analysis identifies the influencing factors in the different parts of the cove. Several methods for the identification of the optimum number of clusters have been tested and 4, 7, 10 as well as 12 were identified as reasonable numbers for clustering the Potter Cove. Especially the results of 10 and 12 clusters identify marine-influenced regions which can be clearly separated from those determined by the geological catchment area and the ones dominated by river discharge.

(Table 1) Activity of alkali phosphatase in suspended matter at 20°C and environmental temperatures, and recycling time of organic phosphorus in the Barents and Norwegian seas

Alkali phosphatase activity and hydrochemical structure of waters in the Barents and Norwegian seas were investigated. In a sea with the seasonal bioproduction cycle alkali phosphatase activity is also seasonal, rising with trophic level of waters. At the end of hydrological and biological winter activity is practically zero. Alkali phosphatase activity is especially important in summer, when plankton has consumed winter supply of phosphate in the euphotic layer and nutrient limitation of primary production begins. In summer production and destruction cycle, apparent time for recycling of phosphorus by phosphatase in suspended matter in the euphotic layer of the Barents Sea and Norwegian Sea averages from 7 to 30 hours.

Environmental characteristics, and growth traits and leaf chemistry of tundra plants in a warming experiment at Alexandra Fiord

Understanding plant trait responses to elevated temperatures in the Arctic is critical in light of recent and continuing climate change, especially because these traits act as key mechanisms in climate-vegetation feedbacks. Since 1992, we have artificially warmed three plant communities at Alexandra Fiord, Nunavut, Canada (79°N). In each of the communities, we used open-top chambers (OTCs) to passively warm vegetation by 1-2 °C. In the summer of 2008, we investigated the intraspecific trait responses of five key species to 16 years of continuous warming. We examined eight traits that quantify different aspects of plant performance: leaf size, specific leaf area (SLA), leaf dry matter content (LDMC), plant height, leaf carbon concentration, leaf nitrogen concentration, leaf carbon isotope discrimination (LCID), and leaf d15N. Long-term artificial warming affected five traits, including at least one trait in every species studied. The evergreen shrub Cassiope tetragona responded most frequently (increased leaf size and plant height/decreased SLA, leaf carbon concentration, and LCID), followed by the deciduous shrub Salix arctica (increased leaf size and plant height/decreased SLA) and the evergreen shrub Dryas integrifolia (increased leaf size and plant height/decreased LCID), the forb Oxyria digyna (increased leaf size and plant height), and the sedge Eriophorum angustifolium spp. triste (decreased leaf carbon concentration). Warming did not affect d15N, leaf nitrogen concentration, or LDMC. Overall, growth traits were more sensitive to warming than leaf chemistry traits. Notably, we found that responses to warming were sustained, even after many years of treatment. Our work suggests that tundra plants in the High Arctic will show a multifaceted response to warming, often including taller shoots with larger leaves.