The battle over deficits : the struggle to maintain Canada's social welfare state : a thesis /

Abstract This thesis seeks to answer a number of questions concerning the deficit and debt in Canada. It focuses pri.arily on the federal level of government but with SOBe discussion of provincial governaent policy as well. In ~997, Canada's federal debt caae close ro six hundred billion dollars - $594 billion or 74.4 % of Gross Do.estic Product (GDP) to be exact. The purpose of this theses is threefold: To find out why Canada accu.ulated such a debt, to discover if there is a so-called debt crisis; and to discover if it is possible to preserve Canada's national welfare state given the financial restraints that have been adopted by both federal and provincial governments. Politicians are torn between economist' two contrasting views regarding deficits: Neo-Keynesian and neo-conservative. The neoKeynesian school focuses al1llOst exclusively on the short term stability of the economy and tends to dismiss concerns regarding the level of debt. Neo conservatives focus almost exclusively on the perceived costs of growth in the national debt and are willing to forego any stabilization benefits to ensure that the debt is controlled. These polar view do have one thing in coa.on; both confix-. that deficits influence govermaent policies. Both of these econoBic theories will have far-reaching influences on the federal gover1lJlJent's decision-making process. These economic theories will be discussed throughout this thesis.

Predicting performance on fluid intelligence from speed of processing, working memory, and controlled attention

Fluid inteliigence has been defined as an innate ability to reason which is measured commonly by the Raven's Progressive Matrices (RPM). Individual differences in fluid intelligence are currently explained by the Cascade model (Fry & Hale, 1996) and the Controlled Attention hypothesis (Engle, Kane, & Tuholski, 1999; Kane & Engle, 2002). The first theory is based on a complex relation among age, speed, and working memory which is described as a Cascade. The alternative to this theory, the Controlled Attention hypothesis, is based on the proposition that it is the executive attention component of working memory that explains performance on fluid intelligence tests. The first goal of this study was to examine whether the Cascade model is consistent within the visuo-spatial and verbal-numerical modalities. The second goal was to examine whether the executive attention component ofworking memory accounts for the relation between working memory and fluid intelligence. Two hundred and six undergraduate students between the ages of 18 and 28 completed a battery of cognitive tests selected to measure processing speed, working memory, and controlled attention which were selected from two cognitive modalities, verbalnumerical and visuo-spatial. These were used to predict performance on two standard measures of fluid intelligence: the Raven's Progressive Matrices (RPM) and the Shipley Institute of Living Scales (SILS) subtests. Multiple regression and Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) were used to test the Cascade model and to determine the independent and joint effects of controlled attention and working memory on general fluid intelligence. Among the processing speed measures only spatial scan was related to the RPM. No other significant relations were observed between processing speed and fluid intelligence. As 1 a construct, working memory was related to the fluid intelligence tests. Consistent with the predictions for the RPM there was support for the Cascade model within the visuo-spatial modality but not within the verbal-numerical modality. There was no support for the Cascade model with respect to the SILS tests. SEM revealed that there was a direct path between controlled attention and RPM and between working memory and RPM. However, a significant path between set switching and RPM explained the relation between controlled attention and RPM. The prediction that controlled attention mediated the relation between working memory and RPM was therefore not supported. The findings support the view that the Cascade model may not adequately explain individual differences in fluid intelligence and this may be due to the differential relations observed between working memory and fluid intelligence across different modalities. The findings also show that working memory is not a domain-general construct and as a result its relation with fluid intelligence may be dependent on the nature of the working memory modality.

Attention focus and balance control in young and older adults

This thesis investigated attention focus and balance control in eighteen healthy young adults and eighteen healthy older adults. All participants performed sixteen consecutive trials of a balance task which involved standing for 30-s on an unstable platform that could rotate only in the roll direction. There were no attention focus instructions provided on any of the sixteen trials. Following the completion of the initial and final attempt in the series, participants reported "where" their attention had been focused when performing the task. The results showed differences in balance between young and older adults and improvements in balance with practice in both young and older adults. However, there were no differences in attention focus strategies between young and older adults. Both age groups directed attention to multiple sources during the balance task. An equal focus on internal (i.e., feet, trunk, and other body parts) and external (i.e., the platform) sources with little focus on events not related to the task dominated on the first attempt of the balance task. Focus on internal sources was maintained and focus on events not related to the task increased at the expense of focus on external sources on the final attempt of the balance task. Following the series of sixteen trials to establish "natural" attention focus, participants performed three randomly presented trials, each with specific attention focus instructions (i.e., think about minimizing movements of the feet, the trunk, or the platform). The results showed that, in contrast to the literature, instructions to focus on an internal source, the trunk, actually augmented control of the task as reflected in reduced trunk sway whereas instructions to focus on an internal source, the feet, or an external source, the platform, did not benefit performance on the task. Thus, the distance fi-om the interaction point of the body with the external source is critical and may not depend on whether the source is internal or external. Thus, a global attention focus instruction may not be beneficial and the nature of the task should be considered when adopting attention focus instructions for young and older adults.

Effectiveness of instructional strategies based on schema theory on attention deficit disorder children

A review of the literature reveals that there are a number of children in the educational system who are characterized by Attention Deficit Disorder. Further review of the literature reveals that there are information processing programs which have had some success in increasing the learning of these children. Currently, an information processing program which is based on schema theory is being implemented in Lincoln County. Since schema theory based programs build structural, conditional, factual, and procedural schemata which assist the learner in attending to salient factors, learning should be increased. Thirty-four children were selected from a random sampling of Grade Seven classes in Lincoln County. Seventeen of these children were identified by the researcher and classroom teacher as being characterized by Attention Deficit Disorder. From the remaining population, 17 children who were not characterized by Attention Deficit Disorder were randomly selected. The data collected were compared using independent t-tests, paired t-tests, and correlation analysis. Significant differences were found in all cases. The Non-Attention Deficit Disorder children scored significantly higher on all the tests but the Attention Defici t Disorder children had a significantly higher ratio of gain between the pretests and posttests.

The role of daytime napping in sleepiness and cognitive function in 24-70 year olds /

Daytime napping improves well-being and performance for young adults. The benefits of napping in older adults should be investigated because they have fragmented nocturnal sleep, cognitive declines, and more opportunity to nap. In addition, experience with napping might influence the benefits of napping. Study 1 examined the role of experience with napping in young adults. Habitual (n = 23) and non-habitual nappers (n = 16) were randomly assigned to a 20-minute nap or a 20- minute reading condition. Both groups slept the same according to macro architecture. However, microarchitecture showed greater theta, alpha, and beta power during Stage 1, and greater delta, alpha, and sigma power during Stage 2 for habitual nappers, for the most part indicating better sleep. Both groups felt less sleepy after the nap. P2 latency, reflecting information processing, decreased after the nap for habitual nappers, and after the control condition for non-habitual nappers. In sum, both groups who slept felt better, but only the habitual nappers who napped gained a benefit in terms of information processing. Based on this outcome, experience with napping was investigated in Study 2. Study 2 examined the extent to which daytime napping enhanced cognition in older adults, especially frontal lobe function. Cognitive deficits in older adults may be due to sleep loss and age-related decline in brain functioning. Longer naps were expected to provide greater improvement, particularly for older adults, by reducing sleep pressure. Thirty-two adults, aged 24-70 years, participated in a repeated measures dose-response manipulation of sleep pressure. Twenty- and sixty-minute naps were compared to a no-nap condition in three age groups. Mood, subjective sleepiness, reaction time, working memory, 11 novelty detection, and waking electro physiological measures were taken before and after each condition. EEG was also recorded during each nap or rest condition. Napping reduced subjective sleepiness, improved working memory (serial addition / subtraction task), and improved attention (reduced P2 amplitude). Physiological sleepiness (i.e., waking theta power) increased following the control condition, and decreased after the longer nap. Increased beta power after the short nap, and seen with older adults overall, may have reflected increased mental effort. Older adults had longer latencies and smaller amplitudes for several event-related potential components, and higher beta and gamma power. Following the longer nap, gamma power decreased for older adults, but increased for young adults. Beta and gamma power may represent enhanced alertness or mental effort. In addition, Nl amplitude showed that benefits depend on the preceding nap length as well as age. Since the middle group had smaller Nl amplitudes following the short nap and rest condition, it is possible that they needed a longer nap to maintain alertness. Older adults did not show improvements to Nl amplitude following any condition; they may have needed a nap longer than 60 minutes to gain benefits to attention or early information processing. Sleep characteristics were not related to benefits of napping. Experience with napping was also investigated. Subjective data confirmed habitual nappers were happier to nap, while non-habitual nappers were happier to stay awake, reflecting self-identified napping habits. Non-habitual nappers were sleepier after a nap, and had faster brain activity (i.e., heightened vigilance) at sleep onset. These reasons may explain why non-habitual nappers choose not to nap.

Physical activity of children with developmental coordination disorder in the presence of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder : does gender matter?

Baerg, S., Cairney, J., Hay, J., Rempel, L. and Faught, B.E. (2009). Physical Activity of Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder in the Presence of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Does Gender Matter? Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario, CANADA. Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) have difficulties in motor coordination. Attention-deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD) is considered the condition most co-morbid with DCD at approximately 50%. Children with DCD are generally less physically active (PA) than their peers, while children with ADHD are often considered more physically active. It is not known if the physical activity patterns of children with DCD-ADHD resemble those of children with primarily DCD or that of their healthy peers. The primary objective of this research was to contrast physical activity patterns between children with DCD, DCD-ADHD, and healthy controls. Since boys are generally reported as more physically active than girls, a secondary objective was to determine if gender moderated the association between groups and physical activity. A sample of males (n=66) and females (n=44) were recruited from the Physical Health Activity Study Team (PHAST) longitudinal study. The Movement Assessment Battery for Children (2nd Ed.) was used to identify probable cases of DCD, and Connor's Revised Parent Rating Scale- Short Version to identify ADHD. Subjects (mean age=12.8±.4 yrs) were allocated to three groups; DCD (n=32), DCD-ADHD (n=30) and control (n=48). Physical activity was monitored for seven days with the Actical® accelerometer (activity count, step count and energy expenditure). Children completed the Participation Questionnaire (PQ) during the in-school session of data collection for the PHAST study. Height, weight and body mass index (BMI) were also determined. Analysis of variance showed significant group differences for activity count (F(2,56)=5.36, p=.007) and PQ (F(2,44 )=6. 71, p=.003) in males, while a significant group difference for step count (F(2,37)=3.55, p=.04) was found in females. Post hoc comparison tests (Tukey) identified significantly lower PQ and activity count between males with OCD and controls (p=.004) and males with DCD-ADHD and controls (p=.003). Conversely, females with DCD-ADHD had significantly more step counts than their controls (p=.01). Analysis of covariance demonstrated a gender by DCD groups negative interaction for males (activity count) (F(2,92):;:3.11, p=.049) and a positive interaction for females (step count) (F(1,92)=4.92, p=.009). Hyperactivity in females with DCD-ADHD appears to contribute to more physical activity, whereas DCD may contribute to decreased activity in males with DCD and DCDADHD. Further research is needed to examine gender differences in physical activity within the context of DCD and ADHD.

Disambiguating the Effects of Social Instability Stress in Adolescence on Learning and Memory Tasks that Involve the Medial Prefrontal Cortex and Hippocampus

Exposure to chronic stress can alter the structure and function of brain regions involved in learning and memory, and these effects are typically long-lasting if the stress occurs during sensitive periods of development. Until recently, adolescence has received relatively little attention as a sensitive period of development, despite marked changes in behaviour, heightened reactivity to stressors, and cognitive and neural maturation. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to investigate the long-term effects of chronic stress in adolescence on two spatial learning and memory tasks (Morris water maze and Spatial Object Location test) and on a working memory task (Delayed Alternation task). Male rats were randomly assigned to chronic social instability stress (SS; daily 1 hour isolation and subsequent change of cage partner between postnatal days 30 and 45) or to a no-stress control group (CTL). During acquisition learning in the Morris water maze task, SS rats demonstrated impaired long-term memory for the location of the hidden escape platform compared to CTL rats, although the impairment was only seen after the first day of training. Similarly, SS rats had impaired long-term memory in the Spatial Object Location test after a long delay (240 minutes), but not after shorter delays (15 or 60 minutes) compared to CTL rats. On the Delayed Alternation task, which assessed working memory across delays ranging from 5 to 90 seconds, no group differences were observed. These results are partially in line with previous research that revealed adult impairment on spatial learning and memory tasks after exposure to chronic social instability stress in adolescence. The observed deficits, however, appear to be limited to long-term memory as no group differences were observed during brief periods of retention.

The effect of perturbation warning on attention switching abilities during dual-task performance in young and older adults

This study examined whether providing an auditory warning would facilitate attention switching abilities in older adults during dual-tasking. Fifteen young and 16 older adults performed a tracking task while recovering their balance from a support surface translation. For half of the trials, an auditory warning was presented to inform participants of the upcoming translation. Performance was quantified through electromyographic (EMG) recordings of the lower limb muscles, while the ability to switch attention between tasks was determined by tracking task error. Providing warning of an upcoming loss of balance resulted in both young and older adults increasing their leg EMG activity by 10-165% (p<0.05) in preparation for the upcoming translation. However, no differences in the timing of attention switching were observed with or without the warning (p=0.424). Together, these findings suggest that providing a perturbation warning has minimal benefits in improving attention switching abilities for balance recovery in healthy older adults.