Uudenmaan vesistöjen ja rannikkovesien tila vuonna 2015

Vuosi 2015 oli edellisen vuoden tapaan poikkeuksellisen, jopa ennätyksellisen lämmin. Helsingin Kaisaniemessä vuoden keskilämpötila oli jopa 1,9 astetta tavanomaista korkeampi. Talvi oli jälleen lyhyt, lauha ja vähäluminen. Suurimmat virtaamat jokivesistöissä mitattiin keväällä ja vuoden lopussa. Jokien mereen kuljettamat ainemäärät olivat vuonna 2015 hiukan edellisvuotta suurempia. Järvien happitilanne lopputalvella 2015 oli kohtalainen johtuen lauhasta talvesta ja lyhyestä jääpeitekaudesta. Kesäaikainen klorofyllipitoisuus oli järvissä keskimäärin samalla tasolla kuin vuonna 2014. Uudenmaan rannikkomerialueella ei ole tapahtunut suuria muutoksia. Merialue on edelleen rehevöitynyt ja pohjien happitilanne on monin paikoin heikko. Sinilevätilanne oli alkukesällä 2015 melko rauhallinen johtuen viileästä ja sateisestä säästä. Sinileväkukinnat runsastuivatkin sekä merialueella että sisävesillä vasta elokuussa. Avomerialueilla loppukesän sinileväkukinnat olivat edellisvuotta suuremmat. Tässä raportissa on käsitelty vain pientä osaa Uudenmaan ELY-keskuksen vesistöseurantojen tuloksista. Kaikki alueen järvien, jokien ja rannikkovesien veden laadun seurantatulokset löytyvät internetistä osoitteesta: http://www.syke.fi/fi-FI/Avoin_tieto. Rekisteristä löytyy mm. vedenlaatutuloksia, tietoa vesistöjen pohjaeläin- ja kasviplanktonlajistosta sekä tuloksia kalojen elohopeapitoisuuksista.

Essays on socially optimal phosphorus policies in crop production

Phosphorus is a nutrient needed in crop production. While boosting crop yields it may also accelerate eutrophication in the surface waters receiving the phosphorus runoff. The privately optimal level of phosphorus use is determined by the input and output prices, and the crop response to phosphorus. Socially optimal use also takes into account the impact of phosphorus runoff on water quality. Increased eutrophication decreases the economic value of surface waters by Deteriorating fish stocks, curtailing the potential for recreational activities and by increasing the probabilities of mass algae blooms. In this dissertation, the optimal use of phosphorus is modelled as a dynamic optimization problem. The potentially plant available phosphorus accumulated in soil is treated as a dynamic state variable, the control variable being the annual phosphorus fertilization. For crop response to phosphorus, the state variable is more important than the annual fertilization. The level of this state variable is also a key determinant of the runoff of dissolved, reactive phosphorus. Also the loss of particulate phosphorus due to erosion is considered in the thesis, as well as its mitigation by constructing vegetative buffers. The dynamic model is applied for crop production on clay soils. At the steady state, the analysis focuses on the effects of prices, damage parameterization, discount rate and soil phosphorus carryover capacity on optimal steady state phosphorus use. The economic instruments needed to sustain the social optimum are also analyzed. According to the results the economic incentives should be conditioned on soil phosphorus values directly, rather than on annual phosphorus applications. The results also emphasize the substantial effects the differences in varying discount rates of the farmer and the social planner have on optimal instruments. The thesis analyzes the optimal soil phosphorus paths from its alternative initial levels. It also examines how erosion susceptibility of a parcel affects these optimal paths. The results underline the significance of the prevailing soil phosphorus status on optimal fertilization levels. With very high initial soil phosphorus levels, both the privately and socially optimal phosphorus application levels are close to zero as the state variable is driven towards its steady state. The soil phosphorus processes are slow. Therefore, depleting high phosphorus soils may take decades. The thesis also presents a methodologically interesting phenomenon in problems of maximizing the flow of discounted payoffs. When both the benefits and damages are related to the same state variable, the steady state solution may have an interesting property, under very general conditions: The tail of the payoffs of the privately optimal path as well as the steady state may provide a higher social welfare than the respective tail of the socially optimal path. The result is formalized and an applied to the created framework of optimal phosphorus use.

Controls on trace metals in urban stream sediments : implications for pollution monitoring using sediment chemistry data

Contamination of urban streams is a rising topic worldwide, but the assessment and investigation of stormwater induced contamination is limited by the high amount of water quality data needed to obtain reliable results. In this study, stream bed sediments were studied to determine their contamination degree and their applicability in monitoring aquatic metal contamination in urban areas. The interpretation of sedimentary metal concentrations is, however, not straightforward, since the concentrations commonly show spatial and temporal variations as a response to natural processes. The variations of and controls on metal concentrations were examined at different scales to increase the understanding of the usefulness of sediment metal concentrations in detecting anthropogenic metal contamination patterns. The acid extractable concentrations of Zn, Cu, Pb and Cd were determined from the surface sediments and water of small streams in the Helsinki Metropolitan region, southern Finland. The data consists of two datasets: sediment samples from 53 sites located in the catchment of the Stream Gräsanoja and sediment and water samples from 67 independent catchments scattered around the metropolitan region. Moreover, the sediment samples were analyzed for their physical and chemical composition (e.g. total organic carbon, clay-%, Al, Li, Fe, Mn) and the speciation of metals (in the dataset of the Stream Gräsanoja). The metal concentrations revealed that the stream sediments were moderately contaminated and caused no immediate threat to the biota. However, at some sites the sediments appeared to be polluted with Cu or Zn. The metal concentrations increased with increasing intensity of urbanization, but site specific factors, such as point sources, were responsible for the occurrence of the highest metal concentrations. The sediment analyses revealed, thus a need for more detailed studies on the processes and factors that cause the hot spot metal concentrations. The sediment composition and metal speciation analyses indicated that organic matter is a very strong indirect control on metal concentrations, and it should be accounted for when studying anthropogenic metal contamination patterns. The fine-scale spatial and temporal variations of metal concentrations were low enough to allow meaningful interpretation of substantial metal concentration differences between sites. Furthermore, the metal concentrations in the stream bed sediments were correlated with the urbanization of the catchment better than the total metal concentrations in the water phase. These results suggest that stream sediments show true potential for wider use in detecting the spatial differences in metal contamination of urban streams. Consequently, using the sediment approach regional estimates of the stormwater related metal contamination could be obtained fairly cost-effectively, and the stability and reliability of results would be higher compared to analyses of single water samples. Nevertheless, water samples are essential in analysing the dissolved concentrations of metals, momentary discharges from point sources in particular.

Lake sediment research as a part of lake management - case studies and implications from southern Finland

In Finland one of the most important current issues in the environmental management is the quality of surface waters. The increasing social importance of lakes and water systems has generated wide-ranging interest in lake restoration and management, concerning especially lakes suffering from eutrophication, but also from other environmental impacts. Most of the factors deteriorating the water quality in Finnish lakes are connected to human activities. Especially since the 1940's, the intensified farming practices and conduction of sewage waters from scattered settlements, cottages and industry have affected the lakes, which simultaneously have developed in to recreational areas for a growing number of people. Therefore, this study was focused on small lakes, which are human impacted, located close to settlement areas and have a significant value for local population. The aim of this thesis was to obtain information from lake sediment records for on-going lake restoration activities and to prove that a well planned, properly focused lake sediment study is an essential part of the work related to evaluation, target consideration and restoration of Finnish lakes. Altogether 11 lakes were studied. The study of Lake Kaljasjärvi was related to the gradual eutrophication of the lake. In lakes Ormajärvi, Suolijärvi, Lehee, Pyhäjärvi and Iso-Roine the main focus was on sediment mapping, as well as on the long term changes of the sedimentation, which were compared to Lake Pääjärvi. In Lake Hormajärvi the role of different kind of sedimentation environments in the eutrophication development of the lake's two basins were compared. Lake Orijärvi has not been eutrophied, but the ore exploitation and related acid main drainage from the catchment area have influenced the lake drastically and the changes caused by metal load were investigated. The twin lakes Etujärvi and Takajärvi are slightly eutrophied, but also suffer problems associated with the erosion of the substantial peat accumulations covering the fringe areas of the lakes. These peat accumulations are related to Holocene water level changes, which were investigated. The methods used were chosen case-specifically for each lake. In general, acoustic soundings of the lakes, detailed description of the nature of the sediment and determinations of the physical properties of the sediment, such as water content, loss on ignition and magnetic susceptibility were used, as was grain size analysis. A wide set of chemical analyses was also used. Diatom and chrysophycean cyst analyses were applied, and the diatom inferred total phosphorus content was reconstructed. The results of these studies prove, that the ideal lake sediment study, as a part of a lake management project, should be two-phased. In the first phase, thoroughgoing mapping of sedimentation patterns should be carried out by soundings and adequate corings. The actual sampling, based on the preliminary results, must include at least one long core from the main sedimentation basin for the determining the natural background state of the lake. The recent, artificially impacted development of the lake can then be determined by short-core and surface sediment studies. The sampling must be focused on the basis of the sediment mapping again, and it should represent all different sedimentation environments and bottom dynamic zones, considering the inlets and outlets, as well as the effects of possible point loaders of the lake. In practice, the budget of the lake management projects of is usually limited and only the most essential work and analyses can be carried out. The set of chemical and biological analyses and dating methods must therefore been thoroughly considered and adapted to the specific management problem. The results show also, that information obtained from a properly performed sediment study enhances the planning of the restoration, makes possible to define the target of the remediation activities and improves the cost-efficiency of the project.

Recovery responses of acidified Finnish lakes under declining acid deposition

The present work provides a regional-scale assessment of the changes in acidifying deposition in Finland over the past 30 years and the current pattern in the recovery of acid-sensitive lakes from acidification in relation to changes in sulphate deposition. This information is needed for documenting the ecosystem benefits of costly emission reduction policies and further actions in air pollution policy. The development of sulphate deposition in Finland reflects that of European SO2 emissions. Before the 1990s, reductions in sulphur emissions in Europe had been relatively small and sulphate deposition showed no consistent trends. Due to emission reduction measures that were then taken, sulphate deposition started to clearly decline from the late 1980s. The bulk deposition of sulphate has declined 40-60% in most parts of the country during 1990-2003. The decline in sulphate deposition exceeded the decline of base cation deposition, which resulted in a decrease in acidity and acidifying potential of deposition over the 1990s. Nitrogen deposition also decreased since the late 1980s, but less than that of sulphate, and levelling off during the 1990s. Sulphate concentrations in all types of small lakes throughout Finland have declined from the early 1990s. The relative decrease in lake sulphate concentrations (average 40-50%) during 1990-2003 was rather similar to the decline in sulphate deposition, indicating a direct response to the reduction in deposition. There are presently no indications of elevated nitrate concentrations in forested headwater lakes. Base cation concentrations are still declining in many lakes, especially in south Finland, but to a lesser extent than sulphate allowing buffering capacity (alkalinity) to increase, being significant in 60% of the study lakes. Chemical recovery is resulting in biological recovery with populations of acid-sensitive fish species increasing. The recovery has been strongest in lakes in which sulphate has been the major acidifying agent, and recovery has been the strongest and most consistent in lakes in south Finland. The recovery of lakes in central Finland and north Finland is not as widespread and strong as observed in south. Many catchments, particularly in central Finland, have a high proportion of peatlands and therefore high TOC concentrations in lakes, and runoff-induced surges of organic acids have been an important confounding factor suppressing the recovery of pH and alkalinity in these lakes. Chemical recovery is progressing even in the most acidified lakes, but the buffering capacity of many lakes is still low and still sensitive to acidic input. Further reduction in sulphur emissions are needed for the alkalinity to increase in the acidified lakes. Increasing total organic carbon (TOC) concentrations are indicated in small forest lakes in Finland. The trends appear to be related to decreasing sulphate deposition and improved acid-base status of the soil, and the rise in TOC is integral to recovery from acidification. A new challenge is climate change with potential trends in temperature, precipitation and runoff, which are expected to affect future chemical and biological recovery from acidification. The potential impact on the mobilization and leaching of organic acids may become particularly important in Finnish conditions. Long-term environmental monitoring has evidently shown the success of international emission abatement strategies. The importance and value of integrated monitoring approach including physical, chemical and biological variables is clearly indicated, and continuous environmental monitoring is needed as a scientific basis for further actions in air pollution policy.

Substance flow analysis in Finland : Four case studies on N and P flows

Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) are essential elements for all living organisms. However, in excess, they contribute to several environmental problems such as aquatic and terrestrial eutrophication. Globally, human action has multiplied the volume of N and P cycling since the onset of industrialization. The multiplication is a result of intensified agriculture, increased energy consumption and population growth. Industrial ecology (IE) is a discipline, in which human interaction with the ecosystems is investigated using a systems analytical approach. The main idea behind IE is that industrial systems resemble ecosystems, and, like them, industrial systems can then be described using material, energy and information flows and stocks. Industrial systems are dependent on the resources provided by the biosphere, and these two cannot be separated from each other. When studying substance flows, the aims of the research from the viewpoint of IE can be, for instance, to elucidate the ways how the cycles of a certain substance could be more closed and how the flows of a certain substance could be decreased per unit of production (= dematerialization). In Finland, N and P are studied widely in different ecosystems and environmental emissions. A holistic picture comparing different societal systems is, however, lacking. In this thesis, flows of N and P were examined in Finland using substance flow analysis (SFA) in the following four subsystems: I) forest industry and use of wood fuels, II) food production and consumption, III) energy, and IV) municipal waste. A detailed analysis at the end of the 1990s was performed. Furthermore, historical development of the N and P flows was investigated in the energy system (III) and the municipal waste system (IV). The main research sources were official statistics, literature, monitoring data, and expert knowledge. The aim was to identify and quantify the main flows of N and P in Finland in the four subsystems studied. Furthermore, the aim was to elucidate whether the nutrient systems are cyclic or linear, and to identify how these systems could be more efficient in the use and cycling of N and P. A final aim was to discuss how this type of an analysis can be used to support decision-making on environmental problems and solutions. Of the four subsystems, the food production and consumption system and the energy system created the largest N flows in Finland. For the creation of P flows, the food production and consumption system (Paper II) was clearly the largest, followed by the forest industry and use of wood fuels and the energy system. The contribution of Finland to N and P flows on a global scale is low, but when compared on a per capita basis, we are one of the largest producers of these flows, with relatively high energy and meat consumption being the main reasons. Analysis revealed the openness of all four systems. The openness is due to the high degree of internationality of the Finnish markets, the large-scale use of synthetic fertilizers and energy resources and the low recycling rate of many waste fractions. Reduction in the use of fuels and synthetic fertilizers, reorganization of the structure of energy production, reduced human intake of nutrients and technological development are crucial in diminishing the N and P flows. To enhance nutrient recycling and replace inorganic fertilizers, recycling of such wastes as wood ash and sludge could be promoted. SFA is not usually sufficiently detailed to allow specific recommendations for decision-making to be made, but it does yield useful information about the relative magnitude of the flows and may reveal unexpected losses. Sustainable development is a widely accepted target for all human action. SFA is one method that can help to analyse how effective different efforts are in leading to a more sustainable society. SFA's strength is that it allows a holistic picture of different natural and societal systems to be drawn. Furthermore, when the environmental impact of a certain flow is known, the method can be used to prioritize environmental policy efforts.

Sediment resuspension as a water quality regulator in lakes

Sediment resuspension, the return of the bottom material into the water column, is an important process that can have various effects on a lake ecosystem. Resuspension caused by wind-induced wave disturbance, currents, turbulent fluctuations and bioturbation affects water quality characteristics such as turbidity, light conditions, and concentrations of suspended solids (SS) and nutrients. Resuspension-mediated increase in turbidity may favour the dominance of phytoplankton over macrophytes. The predator-prey interactions contributing to the trophic state of a lake may also be influenced by increasing turbidity. Directly, the trophic state of a lake can be influenced by the effect of sediment resuspension on nutrient cycling. Resuspension enhances especially the cycling of phosphorus by bringing the sedimentary nutrients back into the water column and may thereby induce switches between phosphorus and nitrogen limitation. The contribution of sediment resuspension to gross sedimentation, turbidity, and concentration of SS and nutrients was studied in a small, deep lake as well as in a multibasin lake with deep and shallow areas. The effect of ice cover on sediment resuspension and thereby on phosphorus concentrations was also studied. The rates of gross sedimentation and resuspen¬sion were estimated with sediment traps and the associations between SS and nutrients were considered. Sediment resuspension, caused by wind activity, comprised most of the gross sedimenta¬tion and strongly contributed to the concentration of SS and turbidity in the lakes studied. Additionally, via the influence on SS, resuspension affected the concentration of total phosphorus (TP) and soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP), as well as the total nitrogen to total phosphorus (TN:TP) ratio. Although contrasting results concerning the dependence between the SS and SRP concentrations were observed, it could be concluded that sediment resuspension during strong algal blooms (pH > 9) led to aerobic release of P. The main findings of this thesis were that in the course of the growing season, sediment resuspension coupled with phytoplankton succession led to liberation of P from resuspended particles, which in turn resulted in high TP concentrations and low TN:TP ratios. This development was likely a cause of strong cyanobacterial blooms in midsummer.

The role of phosphorus as a regulator of bloom-forming diazotrophic cyanobacteria in the Baltic Sea

Eutrophication favours harmful algal blooms worldwide. The blooms cause toxic outbreaks and deteriorated recreational and aesthetic values, causing both economic loss and illness or death of humans and animals. The Baltic Sea is the world s only large brackish water habitat with recurrent blooms of toxic cyanobacteria capable of biological fixation of atmospheric nitrogen gas. Phosphorus is assumed to be the main limiting factor, along with temperature and light, for the growth of these cyanobacteria. This thesis evaluated the role of phosphorus nutrition as a regulating factor for the occurrence of nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria blooms in the Baltic Sea, utilising experimental laboratory and field studies and surveys on varying spatial scales. Cellular phosphorus sources were found to be able to support substantial growth of the two main bloom forming species Aphanizomenon sp. and Nodularia spumigena. However, N. spumigena growth seemed independent of phosphorus source, whereas, Aphanizomenon sp. grew best in a phosphate enriched environment. Apparent discrepancies with field observations and experiments are explained by the typical seasonal temperature dependent development of Aphanizomenon sp. and N. spumigena biomass allowing the two species to store ambient pre-bloom excess phosphorus in different ways. Field experiments revealed natural cyanobacteria bloom communities to be predominantly phosphorus deficient during blooms. Phosphate additions were found to increase the accumulation of phosphorus relatively most in the planktonic size fraction dominated by the nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria. Aphanizomenon sp. responded to phosphate additions whereas the phosphorus nutritive status of N. spumigena seemed independent of phosphate addition. The seasonal development of phosphorus deficiency is different for the two species with N. spumigena showing indications of phosphorus deficiency during a longer time period in the open sea. Coastal upwelling introduces phosphorus to the surface layer during nutrient deficient conditions in summer. The species-specific ability of Aphanizomenon sp. and N. spumigena to utilise phosphate enrichment of the surface layer caused by coastal upwelling was clarified. Typical bloom time vertical distributions of biomass maxima were found to render N. spumigena more susceptible to advection by surface currents caused by coastal upwellings. Aphanizomenon sp. populations residing in the seasonal thermocline were observed to be able to utilise the phosphate enrichment and a bloom was produced with a two to three week time lag subsequent to the relaxation of upwelling. Consistent high concentrations of dissolved inorganic phosphorus, caused by persistent internal loading of phosphorus, was found to be the main source of phosphorus for large-scale pelagic blooms. External loads were estimated to contribute with only a fraction of available phosphorus for open sea blooms. Remineralization of organic forms of phosphorus along with vertical mixing to the permanent halocline during winter set the level of available phosphorus for the next growth season. Events such as upwelling are important in replenishing phosphate concentrations during the nutrient deplete growth season. Autecological characteristics of the two main bloom forming species favour Aphanizomenon sp. populations in utilising the abundant excess phosphate concentrations and phosphate pulses mediated through upwelling. Whilst, N. spumigena displays predominant phosphorus limited growth mode and relies on more scarce cellular phosphorus stores and presumably dissolved organic phosphorus compounds for growth. The Baltic Sea is hypothesised to be in an inhibited state of recovery due to the extensive historical external nutrient loading, extensive internal phosphorus loading and the substantial nitrogen load caused by cyanobacteria nitrogen fixation. This state of the sea is characterised as a vicious circle .

From environmental concerns towards sustainable food provisioning. : Material flow and food consumption scenario studies on sustainability of agri-food systems

Agriculture is an economic activity that heavily relies on the availability of natural resources. Through its role in food production agriculture is a major factor affecting public welfare and health, and its indirect contribution to gross domestic product and employment is significant. Agriculture also contributes to numerous ecosystem services through management of rural areas. However, the environmental impact of agriculture is considerable and reaches far beyond the agroecosystems. The questions related to farming for food production are, thus, manifold and of great public concern. Improving environmental performance of agriculture and sustainability of food production, sustainabilizing food production, calls for application of wide range of expertise knowledge. This study falls within the field of agro-ecology, with interphases to food systems and sustainability research and exploits the methods typical of industrial ecology. The research in these fields extends from multidisciplinary to interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary, a holistic approach being the key tenet. The methods of industrial ecology have been applied extensively to explore the interaction between human economic activity and resource use. Specifically, the material flow approach (MFA) has established its position through application of systematic environmental and economic accounting statistics. However, very few studies have applied MFA specifically to agriculture. The MFA approach was used in this thesis in such a context in Finland. The focus of this study is the ecological sustainability of primary production. The aim was to explore the possibilities of assessing ecological sustainability of agriculture by using two different approaches. In the first approach the MFA-methods from industrial ecology were applied to agriculture, whereas the other is based on the food consumption scenarios. The two approaches were used in order to capture some of the impacts of dietary changes and of changes in production mode on the environment. The methods were applied at levels ranging from national to sector and local levels. Through the supply-demand approach, the viewpoint changed between that of food production to that of food consumption. The main data sources were official statistics complemented with published research results and expertise appraisals. MFA approach was used to define the system boundaries, to quantify the material flows and to construct eco-efficiency indicators for agriculture. The results were further elaborated for an input-output model that was used to analyse the food flux in Finland and to determine its relationship to the economy-wide physical and monetary flows. The methods based on food consumption scenarios were applied at regional and local level for assessing feasibility and environmental impacts of relocalising food production. The approach was also used for quantification and source allocation of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of primary production. GHG assessment provided, thus, a means of crosschecking the results obtained by using the two different approaches. MFA data as such or expressed as eco-efficiency indicators, are useful in describing the overall development. However, the data are not sufficiently detailed for identifying the hot spots of environmental sustainability. Eco-efficiency indicators should not be bluntly used in environmental assessment: the carrying capacity of the nature, the potential exhaustion of non-renewable natural resources and the possible rebound effect need also to be accounted for when striving towards improved eco-efficiency. The input-output model is suitable for nationwide economy analyses and it shows the distribution of monetary and material flows among the various sectors. Environmental impact can be captured only at a very general level in terms of total material requirement, gaseous emissions, energy consumption and agricultural land use. Improving environmental performance of food production requires more detailed and more local information. The approach based on food consumption scenarios can be applied at regional or local scales. Based on various diet options the method accounts for the feasibility of re-localising food production and environmental impacts of such re-localisation in terms of nutrient balances, gaseous emissions, agricultural energy consumption, agricultural land use and diversity of crop cultivation. The approach is applicable anywhere, but the calculation parameters need to be adjusted so as to comply with the specific circumstances. The food consumption scenario approach, thus, pays attention to the variability of production circumstances, and may provide some environmental information that is locally relevant. The approaches based on the input-output model and on food consumption scenarios represent small steps towards more holistic systemic thinking. However, neither one alone nor the two together provide sufficient information for sustainabilizing food production. Environmental performance of food production should be assessed together with the other criteria of sustainable food provisioning. This requires evaluation and integration of research results from many different disciplines in the context of a specified geographic area. Foodshed area that comprises both the rural hinterlands of food production and the population centres of food consumption is suggested to represent a suitable areal extent for such research. Finding a balance between the various aspects of sustainability is a matter of optimal trade-off. The balance cannot be universally determined, but the assessment methods and the actual measures depend on what the bottlenecks of sustainability are in the area concerned. These have to be agreed upon among the actors of the area

Luonto- ja maisemapalvelujen nykytila

Luonto- ja maisemapalveluiden tarve kasvaa Luonnon monipuolinen käyttö ja samalla huoli luonnon monimuotoisuuden säilymisestä on lisääntynyt. Umpeenkasvu uhkaa maaseudun maatalouskäytöstä poisjääneitä peltoalueita ja järvien rantojen perinnemaisemia. Hoidetulla maisemalla ja luonnolla virkistyspalveluineen on suuri merkitys maaseudun viihtyisyydelle, vetovoimaisuudelle ja elinkeinoille, erityisesti matkailulle. Suomi on lisäksi sitoutunut kansallisesti ja kansainvälisesti muun muassa biologisen monimuotoisuuden turvaamiseen sekä perinnemaisemien säilyttämiseen. Myös vesien osalta tavoitellaan pinta- ja pohjavesien hyvää tilaa. Luonnon ja maiseman hoitoon ja käyttöön liittyviä palveluja tarjoava yrittäjyys tuo uusia ratkaisuja alan tarpeisiin ja samalla lisää pää- ja sivutoimisia elinkeinomahdollisuuksia maaseudulle. Maaseutuyrittäjillä on usein hoitotöihin liittyvää osaamista ja koneita. Lisäksi yrityksillä on tarvetta monipuolistaa palvelujaan, jotta ne voisivat vahvistaa toimintansa ympärivuotisuutta. Julkisten palvelujen ja rahoituksen arvioidaan pysyvän suunnilleen nykytasollaan, mutta yksityisellä rahoituksella toteutettavien töiden osuuden odotetaan kasvavan. Ympäristöstä huolehtiminen ja erilaisiin luonnon- ja maisemanhoidon projekteihin osallistuminen ovat osa yritysten yhteiskuntavastuullisuutta. Myös ikääntyneet, kaupungistuneet tai omaa vapaa-aikaansa arvostavat ihmiset ja kotitaloudet ovat lähitulevaisuudessa nykyistä enemmän kiinnostuneita ostamaan luonto- ja maisemapalveluita. Monipuolista työtä ja palvelutoimintaa luonnon ja maiseman parissa Luonto- ja maisemapalveluilla tarkoitetaan luonnon ja kulttuurimaiseman hoitoon ja käyttöön liittyviä palveluita. Suojelu- ja monimuotoisuuskohteiden hoidon lisäksi palveluilla on merkitystä maisemanhoidossa, kulttuurikohteiden vaalimisessa, luonnon virkistyskäytössä ja luontomatkailussa. Luonto- ja maisemapalvelut voidaan jakaa luonnonhoitopalveluihin, maisemanhoitopalveluihin ja luonnon käyttöön liittyviin palveluihin. Luonnonhoitopalveluihin kuuluvat lähinnä perinnebiotooppien ja rakennettujen perinnemaisemien kunnostus- ja hoitotyöt, metsien ja soiden luonnonhoitotyöt, vesistöjen ja kalakantojen hoitotyöt, vesiensuojelutyöt sekä rantojen ja rantaniittyjen raivaustyöt, niitto ja laidunnus. Maisemanhoitopalveluihin kuuluvat muun muassa kuntien ja taajamien viheralueiden hoitotyöt, liikenneympäristöjen viheralueiden hoito, ranta-alueiden siivous ja näkymien avaaminen sekä maisemointityöt. Luonnon käyttöön liittyviä palveluja ovat muun muassa retkeily- ja virkistyskohteiden työt, liikuntapaikkojen perustaminen ja hoito, tieisännöinti ja yksityisteiden kunnossapitotyöt, kiinteistöjen ja tonttien huolto- ja kunnostustyöt, sähkölinjojen raivaus, puunkorjuu erityiskohteilla, energiapuun ja luonnonmateriaalien keruu sekä riistanhoitotyöt. Yrityspalveluiden kysyntä kasvussa Luonto- ja maisemapalveluita ostavia asiakkaita ovat pääasiassa kunnat ja seurakunnat, tiehallinto ja tiekunnat, voimayhtiöt, alueelliset ympäristökeskukset, Museovirasto, Metsähallitus, metsäkeskukset, metsänhoitoyhdistykset, maanviljelijät ja metsänomistajat, yritykset, kyläyhdistykset ja muut maaseudun yhdistykset, yksityiset ihmiset sekä hankkeet. Palveluita tarjoavat luonto- ja maisemapalveluyritysten lisäksi muun muassa julkiset palvelun tuottajat kuten kunnat, alueelliset ympäristökeskukset ja Museovirasto sekä Metsähallitus, metsäkeskukset, metsänhoitoyhdistykset ja muut yhdistykset. Kuntien tehtäviin ja palveluihin sisältyvät ympäristönhoitotyöt sekä liikunta- ja vapaa-ajanpalvelut toteutetaan joko kuntien omana työnä tai ostamalla palveluja muilta palvelujen tuottajilta. Kustannussäästöjen takia tehtävä toiminnan ulkoistaminen lisää ammattitaitoisten palveluiden kysyntää. Tiehallinto tiepiireineen toimii liikenneympäristöjen hoidossa tilaajavirastona, jolla ei ole itsellään käytännön hoitotöihin kalustoa eikä työntekijöitä. Alueurakkakokonaisuuksille ostetaan urakoitsijalta sovitut laatuvaatimukset ja toimintaohjeet täyttävä teiden palvelutaso, jonka täyttämiseen liittyvistä laatuvaatimuksista urakoitsijalla on oltava selvitys. Urakkakoon kasvamisesta huolimatta maaseutuyrittäjillä on toimintaansa ja yhteistyötään kehittämällä mahdollisuuksia osallistua kokonaisurakoiden sekä mahdollisten erillisurakoiden toteutukseen. Palvelutehtäviä on myös yksityisteiden isännöinnissä, kunnossapidossa ja tiemaisemien hoidossa. Alueelliset ympäristökeskukset toteuttavat erilaisilla julkisilla rahoituksilla hankkeita, joissa työkohteet vaihtelevat vesiensuojelusta monimuotoisuuden hoitoon, viheralueiden hoidosta maisemien avaamiseen ja luontopolkujen kunnostamisesta rakennusten kunnostamiseen. Ympäristökeskuksilla ei ole merkittävästi omia henkilöresursseja hoitotöiden toteuttamiseen, joten töitä toteutetaan esimerkiksi työllisyystöinä tai ostamalla urakoitsijoilta. Ostopalveluiden kysyntä voi kasvaa luonnonhoidon tarpeiden kasvaessa. Metsähallituksen Luontopalvelut hoitaa pääosin budjettivaroin valtion maiden luonnonsuojelualueita, kansallis- ja luonnonpuistoja sekä erämaa- ja retkeilyalueita. Metsähallitus tekee muun muassa metsien ja soiden ennallistamista, erilaisia luonnonhoitotöitä ja luontokartoituksia, rakentaa alueiden opastus- ja palveluvarustusta sekä järjestää opastustoimintaa. Pääosan hoitotöistä Metsähallitus hoitaa omana työnä erityisesti alueilla, joilla on runsaasti valtionmaita, metsätaloutta ja omaa metsurityövoimaa. Toiminnan resursseja kiristävät valtionhallinnon tuottavuusohjelman aiheuttama oman henkilöstön väheneminen sekä Etelä-Suomen uusien suojeluohjelmien mukana Metsähallituksen hoidettavaksi siirtyvät luontoreitit. Hajallaan olevien pienien suojelualueiden sekä vastaavien retkeilykohteiden hoitotöiden toteuttamiseen hankitaan ostopalveluita. Metsäkeskukset toteuttavat metsänomistajien mailla luonnonhoitohankkeita. Näitä töitä toteutetaan omana työnä tai ostamalla palveluita yrityksiltä. Metsänhoitoyhdistykset puolestaan tarjoavat asiakkailleen maisema- ja luontopalveluja, joita toteutetaan joko omana työnä tai ostamalla osittain yrityksiltä. Töiden määrä on lisääntymässä. Maanomistajat voivat ostaa luonto- ja maisemapalveluita tilan ulkopuolelta, jos itsellä ei ole töihin aikaa, sopivaa konekantaa tai riittävää ammattitaitoa. Yrityksillä on muun muassa matkailualalla tarvetta palveluille. Ympäristöstä huolehtiminen on osa yritysten julkisuuskuvaa ja yhteiskuntavastuullisuutta, jonka arvioidaan saavan lisää merkitystä lähitulevaisuudessa. Myös yksityisten ihmisten ja kotitalouksien kysynnän odotetaan kasvavan esimerkiksi pihapiirin ja teiden hoidossa sekä virkistys- ja maisema-arvokaupan muodossa. Maaseudun erilaiset yhdistykset, kuten kyläyhdistykset ja kalastuskunnat, voivat toimia sekä kysynnän kokoajina että palveluiden toteuttajana ja organisoijana. Hanketoiminnasta on tullut merkittävä resurssi ja palvelujen ostaja luonto- ja maisemapalveluihin liittyvissä töissä. Rahoituksen lyhytkestoisuus ja työvoiman vaihtuvuus kuitenkin hankaloittavat säännöllisten hoitotoimien tekoa ja kokonaisuuksien aikaansaamista. Hankerahoitus mahdollistaa monien erilaisten toimijoiden osallistumisen luonnon- ja maisemanhoitoon, mutta käytännössä tarvitaan välittäjäorganisaatioita, jotka kokoavat rahoituksen, osaavat tekijät ja tekemättömät työt sekä organisoivat toteutuksen. Hankerahoituksia ovat muun muassa työllisyysrahoitus, Kestävän metsätalouden rahoituslain mukainen rahoitus sekä erilaiset EU-rahoitukset esimerkiksi Manner-Suomen maaseudun kehittämisohjelma, ESR- ja EAKR-ohjelmat ja Life-rahoitus. Toimialan vahvistuminen vaatii koulutusta ja kehittämistoimia Luonto- ja maisemapalveluihin liittyvät työt monipuolisine ja lisääntyvine osaamisvaatimuksineen vaativat uuden ammattikunnan, ammattitaitoisen luonto- ja maisemapalveluyrittäjän. Alan tarpeisiin on jo osin syntynytkin palveluita tarjoavia yrityksiä. Toistaiseksi alan yrityskenttä on kuitenkin pääosin varsin hajanainen ja tilastoimaton. Alan yrittäjyyden kehittyminen omana toimialana nostaa myös maiseman- ja luonnonhoidon arvostusta. Työtehtävät tarjoavat päätoimisen yrittäjyyden lisäksi mahdollisuuksia monialayrittäjyyteen perinteisten maaseutuelinkeinojen rinnalla. Palvelujen tarjoajien määrän ja ammattitaidon lisäämiseksi tarvitaan ammatillista koulutusta sekä lyhytkestoista koulutusta alalla jo toimiville tai alalle aikoville. Luonto- ja maisemapalveluiden työtehtäviin liittyvää, tutkintoon johtavaa ammatillista koulutusta on tarjolla varsin monipuolisesti perustutkinnoista ammatti- ja erikoisammattitutkintoihin. Luonto- ja maisemapalveluihin liittyvät ammatilliset tutkinnot sisältyvät pääosin luonnonvara- ja ympäristöalaan. Lyhytkestoista koulutusta maaseutuyrittäjille ovat järjestäneet muun muassa ProAgrian maa- ja kotitalousnaiset maiseman- ja ympäristönhoidosta sekä Suomen Tieyhdistys tieisännöinnistä. Koulutusta tarvitaan esimerkiksi alan kustannusperusteista ja hinnoittelusta, erilaisten kohteiden hoitotöistä, hoidon laatuvaatimuksista sekä hoitotyössä tarvittavista koneista ja laitteista. Luontokohteiden töissä vaaditaan usein monialaosaamista, mikä korostuu varsinkin syrjäisillä ja pienillä työkohteilla. Luonto- ja maisemapalveluyrittäjyyden kehittyminen edellyttää kysynnän ja tarjonnan kohtaamista, luonto- ja maisemapalveluiden tunnettuuden lisäämistä sekä rahoituksen toimintamallien kehittämistä ja käyttöönottoa. Palvelujen tarjoajien verkottuminen tarjoaa mahdollisuuksia asiakkaiden tarvitsemiin kokonaispalveluihin, erikoisosaamisen kehittämiseen sekä kustannussäästöihin. Asiakkaiden ja töiden toteuttajien yhteensaattamisessa, rahoituslähteiden kokoamisessa sekä alan neuvonnan ja koulutuksen järjestämisessä tarvitaan välittäjäorganisaatioita. Luonto- ja maisemapalvelut -teemaryhmä jatkaa tämän nykytilakatsauksen kokoamisen jälkeen toimialan vaatimien kehittämistoimien tarkastelua, johon sisältyvät täydennyskoulutuksen, tuotteistamisen sekä kysynnän ja tarjonnan kehittäminen.

The watershed simulation and forecasting system in the National Board of and the Environment

Yhteenveto: Vesistömalleihin perustuva vesistöjen seuranta- ja ennustejärjestelmä vesi- ja ympäristöhallinnossa

Aeration at overflow weirs

Yhteenveto: Ilmastus ylisyöksypadoilla

Snow cover models in operational watershed forecasting

Yhteenveto: Lumimallit vesistöjen ennustemalleissa