Wind turbines equipped with fractional-order controllers: Stress on the mechanical drive train due to a converter control malfunction

This paper is on variable-speed wind turbines with permanent magnet synchronous generator (PMSG). Three different drive train mass models and three different topologies for the power-electronic converters are considered. The three different topologies considered are respectively a matrix, a two-level and a multilevel converter. A novel control strategy, based on fractional-order controllers, is proposed for the wind turbines. Simulation results are presented to illustrate the behaviour of the wind turbines during a converter control malfunction, considering the fractional-order controllers. Finally, conclusions are duly drawn. Copyright (C) 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Teollisuusverkon stabiilisuus saarekekäyttöön siirryttäessä

Työn aluksi on käsitelty sähkövoimajärjestelmien stabiilisuutta yleisesti. Myös teollisuuden sähköverkkojen erityispiirteitä on tarkasteltu. Teollisuusverkkojen komponentteja koskevassa selvityksessä eri laitteet on käsitelty siten, että niiden tärkeimmät ominaisuudet verkon erilaisissa muutostilanteissa tulevat esille. Tahtigeneraattorit ja epätahtikoneet on käsitelty yksityiskohtaisesti. Tutkimuksessa on esitelty teollisuusverkon saarekekäyttöön johtavia syitä, saarekkeeseen siirtymisen kriteereitä ja saarekekäytön toteutustapoja. Tehonvajaussuojaukseen liittyen on tutustuttu kuormanpudotusjärjestelyihin. Myös höyryverkon kuormien tasausten mahdollisuuksiin on luotu katsaus. Verkostolaskentaa käsittelevässä luvussa on keskitytty sopivan laskentamallin luomiseen liittyviin menetelmiin ja rajoituksiin. Lisäksi on kerrottu työn käytännön osan laskentamallin luomisen keskeiset periaatteet. Työn lopuksi on suoritettu simulointeja, joissa on tutkittu erään teollisuusverkon stabiilisuutta saarekekäyttöön siirryttäessä Calpos-verkostolaskentaohjelmistolla.

Erikoissähkökoneen tyyppitestaus

Uusien erikoissähkökoneiden testaus perinteisten standardien mukaan on osittain haasteellista. Erikoissähkökoneille, kuten kestomagneettitahtikoneelle ei ole esitetty suoranaisia standardin vaatimia testejä, joten siihen joudutaan soveltamaan olemassa olevia erillismagnetoiduntahtikoneen standardeja. Testien tavoitteena on olla luotettavia sekä vertailukelpoisia. Mittausten on oltava toistettavissa. Mittaustavasta riippuen voidaan saada erilaisia tuloksia, jotka vaikuttavat lopputulokseen. Standardien mukaisessa testauksessa saadaan mittauksista samanlaisia ja samalla saadaan mittausvirheen mahdollisuus pienemmäksi ja tällä tavoin tulokset keskenään vertailukelpoisemmiksi. Tässä työssä tarkastellaan kahta erilaista erikoissähkokonetta, kestomagneettitahtikonetta ja massiiviroottoriepätahtikonetta. Työssä selvitetään standardin IEC 60034 soveltuvuutta tyyppitesteihin, joita kyseiset konetyypit vaativat. Lisäksi työssä vertaillaan standardin IEC 60034 mukaisen hyötysuhteen määrittämistä. Se antaakin useita vaihtoehtoja hyötysuhteen määrittämiselle.

Lightweight, liquid-cooled, direct-drive generator for highpower wind turbines: motivation, concept, and performance

Thesis: A liquid-cooled, direct-drive, permanent-magnet, synchronous generator with helical, double-layer, non-overlapping windings formed from a copper conductor with a coaxial internal coolant conduit offers an excellent combination of attributes to reliably provide economic wind power for the coming generation of wind turbines with power ratings between 5 and 20MW. A generator based on the liquid-cooled architecture proposed here will be reliable and cost effective. Its smaller size and mass will reduce build, transport, and installation costs. Summary: Converting wind energy into electricity and transmitting it to an electrical power grid to supply consumers is a relatively new and rapidly developing method of electricity generation. In the most recent decade, the increase in wind energy’s share of overall energy production has been remarkable. Thousands of land-based and offshore wind turbines have been commissioned around the globe, and thousands more are being planned. The technologies have evolved rapidly and are continuing to evolve, and wind turbine sizes and power ratings are continually increasing. Many of the newer wind turbine designs feature drivetrains based on Direct-Drive, Permanent-Magnet, Synchronous Generators (DD-PMSGs). Being low-speed high-torque machines, the diameters of air-cooled DD-PMSGs become very large to generate higher levels of power. The largest direct-drive wind turbine generator in operation today, rated just below 8MW, is 12m in diameter and approximately 220 tonne. To generate higher powers, traditional DD-PMSGs would need to become extraordinarily large. A 15MW air-cooled direct-drive generator would be of colossal size and tremendous mass and no longer economically viable. One alternative to increasing diameter is instead to increase torque density. In a permanent magnet machine, this is best done by increasing the linear current density of the stator windings. However, greater linear current density results in more Joule heating, and the additional heat cannot be removed practically using a traditional air-cooling approach. Direct liquid cooling is more effective, and when applied directly to the stator windings, higher linear current densities can be sustained leading to substantial increases in torque density. The higher torque density, in turn, makes possible significant reductions in DD-PMSG size. Over the past five years, a multidisciplinary team of researchers has applied a holistic approach to explore the application of liquid cooling to permanent-magnet wind turbine generator design. The approach has considered wind energy markets and the economics of wind power, system reliability, electromagnetic behaviors and design, thermal design and performance, mechanical architecture and behaviors, and the performance modeling of installed wind turbines. This dissertation is based on seven publications that chronicle the work. The primary outcomes are the proposal of a novel generator architecture, a multidisciplinary set of analyses to predict the behaviors, and experimentation to demonstrate some of the key principles and validate the analyses. The proposed generator concept is a direct-drive, surface-magnet, synchronous generator with fractional-slot, duplex-helical, double-layer, non-overlapping windings formed from a copper conductor with a coaxial internal coolant conduit to accommodate liquid coolant flow. The novel liquid-cooling architecture is referred to as LC DD-PMSG. The first of the seven publications summarized in this dissertation discusses the technological and economic benefits and limitations of DD-PMSGs as applied to wind energy. The second publication addresses the long-term reliability of the proposed LC DD-PMSG design. Publication 3 examines the machine’s electromagnetic design, and Publication 4 introduces an optimization tool developed to quickly define basic machine parameters. The static and harmonic behaviors of the stator and rotor wheel structures are the subject of Publication 5. And finally, Publications 6 and 7 examine steady-state and transient thermal behaviors. There have been a number of ancillary concrete outcomes associated with the work including the following. X Intellectual Property (IP) for direct liquid cooling of stator windings via an embedded coaxial coolant conduit, IP for a lightweight wheel structure for lowspeed, high-torque electrical machinery, and IP for numerous other details of the LC DD-PMSG design X Analytical demonstrations of the equivalent reliability of the LC DD-PMSG; validated electromagnetic, thermal, structural, and dynamic prediction models; and an analytical demonstration of the superior partial load efficiency and annual energy output of an LC DD-PMSG design X A set of LC DD-PMSG design guidelines and an analytical tool to establish optimal geometries quickly and early on X Proposed 8 MW LC DD-PMSG concepts for both inner and outer rotor configurations Furthermore, three technologies introduced could be relevant across a broader spectrum of applications. 1) The cost optimization methodology developed as part of this work could be further improved to produce a simple tool to establish base geometries for various electromagnetic machine types. 2) The layered sheet-steel element construction technology used for the LC DD-PMSG stator and rotor wheel structures has potential for a wide range of applications. And finally, 3) the direct liquid-cooling technology could be beneficial in higher speed electromotive applications such as vehicular electric drives.

Regulador automático de tensão robusto utilizando técnicas de controle adaptativo

The stability of synchronous generators connected to power grid has been the object of study and research for years. The interest in this matter is justified by the fact that much of the electricity produced worldwide is obtained with the use of synchronous generators. In this respect, studies have been proposed using conventional and unconventional control techniques such as fuzzy logic, neural networks, and adaptive controllers to increase the stabilitymargin of the systemduring sudden failures and transient disturbances. Thismaster thesis presents a robust unconventional control strategy for maintaining the stability of power systems and regulation of output voltage of synchronous generators connected to the grid. The proposed control strategy comprises the integration of a sliding surface with a linear controller. This control structure is designed to prevent the power system losing synchronism after a sudden failure and regulation of the terminal voltage of the generator after the fault. The feasibility of the proposed control strategy was experimentally tested in a salient pole synchronous generator of 5 kVA in a laboratory structure

A comparative study of MPPT strategies and a novel singlephase integrated buck-boost inverter for small wind energy conversion systems

This paper presents the analysis of some usual MPPT (Maximum Power Point Tracking) strategies intended for small wind energy conversion (up to 1kW) based on permanent magnet synchronous generators (PMSG), considering the stand-alone application for a novel buck-boost integrated inverter. Each MPPT method is analytically introduced and then it is simulated using MatLab/Simulink considering standard conditions of wind and also commercially available turbines and generators. The extracted power in each case is compared with the maximum available power, so the tracking factor is calculated for each method. Thus, the focus is on the application to improve the efficiency of stand-alone wind energy conversion systems (WECS) with battery chargers and AC load supplied by inverter. Therefore, for this purpose a novel single phase buck-boost integrated inverter is introduced. Finally, the main experimental results for the introduced inverter are presented. © 2011 IEEE.

O estudo da influência do ciclo de partidas e paradas no estator de geradores síncronos

Os geradores síncronos se submetem a diferentes situações de paradas para desligamento forçado, desligamento por condições externas, desligamento programado para manutenção corretiva e preventiva. As diferentes variações de temperatura em que se submete o gerador síncrono, precisamente, ao seu estator, afeta o seu isolamento, que não acompanha essas constantes variações, devido ter um coeficiente de dilatação diferente. No presente trabalho busca-se identificar uma tendência de progressão do envelhecimento do isolamento de seus enrolamentos estatóricos em máquinas que sofrem repetitivas partidas e paradas e que ficam com sua reserva de energia desligada por muitas horas. O estudo foi aplicado nos cinco geradores síncronos da usina hidrelétrica de Balbina, pertencente ao grupo Eletrobrás, que apresenta tal problema. Esse estudo vem comprovar os ensaios de análise de descargas parciais dos geradores síncronos realizados periodicamente para diagnosticar problemas nos seus enrolamentos estatóricos que apresentam diferentes magnitudes e confirmar a hipótese de que máquinas que apresentam maiores magnitudes de descargas parciais em seus estatores são as que se submetem maiores quantidades de partidas e paradas e horas com energia de reserva desligada.

Modelos equivalentes de parques eólicos usando algoritmos genéticos

Esta dissertação apresenta uma metodologia baseada em algoritmo genético (AG) para determinar modelos dinâmicos equivalentes de parques eólicos com geradores de indução em gaiola de esquilo ( GIGE) e geradores de indução duplamente alimentados ( GIDA), apresentando parâmetros elétricos e mecânicos distintos. A técnica se baseia em uma formulação multiobjetiva solucionada por um AG para minimizar os erros quadráticos das potências ativa e reativa entre modelo de um único gerador equivalente e o modelo do parque eólico investigado. A influência do modelo equivalente do parque eólico no comportamento dinâmico dos geradores síncronos é também investigada por meio do método proposto. A abordagem é testada em um parque eólico de 10MW composto por quatro turbinas eólicas ( 2x2MW e 2x3MW), consistindo alternadamente de geradores GIGE e GIDA interligados a uma barra infinita e posteriormente a rede elétrica do IEEE 14 barras. Os resultados obtidos pelo uso do modelo dinâmico detalhado para a representação do parque eólico são comparados aos do modelo equivalente proposto para avaliar a precisão e o custo computacional do modelo proposto.

Cálculo de equivalentes dinâmicos de sistema de potência usando algoritmos genéticos

Esta dissertação apresenta um método baseado em algoritmos genéticos para cálculo de equivalentes dinâmicos de sistemas de potência visando representar partes de um sistema para estudos de análise de estabilidade transitória. O modelo do equivalente dinâmico é obtido por meio da identificação de parâmetros de geradores síncronos, localizados nas barras de fronteira entre o sistema externo e o subsistema em estudo. Um indicie é usado para avaliar a proximidade entre as simulações realizadas usando o modelo completo e o modelo reduzido, após serem submetidos a grandes distúrbios no subsistema em estudo. Diferentes condições operacionais foram levadas em conta. As simulações foram realizadas usando os softwares GAOT “The Genetic Algorithm Optimization Toolbox”, ANAREDE e ANATEM. Esse método foi testado no sistema teste duas áreas do Kundur e no Sistema Interligado Nacional (SIN). Os resultados validaram a eficácia do método desenvolvido para o cálculo de equivalentes dinâmicos robustos.

Proposta de uma metodologia para obtenção de um gerador síncrono com rotor de ímãs permanentes inclinados axialmente para microcentrais elétrica a partir de motor de indução

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)

A Model-Based Approach for Small-Signal Stability Assessment of Unbalanced Power Systems

In this paper, a modeling technique for small-signal stability assessment of unbalanced power systems is presented. Since power distribution systems are inherently unbalanced, due to its lines and loads characteristics, and the penetration of distributed generation into these systems is increasing nowadays, such a tool is needed in order to ensure a secure and reliable operation of these systems. The main contribution of this paper is the development of a phasor-based model for the study of dynamic phenomena in unbalanced power systems. Using an assumption on the net torque of the generator, it is possible to precisely define an equilibrium point for the phasor model of the system, thus enabling its linearization around this point, and, consequently, its eigenvalue/eigenvector analysis for small-signal stability assessment. The modeling technique presented here was compared to the dynamic behavior observed in ATP simulations and the results show that, for the generator and controller models used, the proposed modeling approach is adequate and yields reliable and precise results.

Ajuste e ensaio de sistemas de proteção de geradores síncronos.

Os sistemas de proteção dos elementos da rede elétrica desempenham um papel de fundamental importância na segurança e confiabilidade dos sistemas de potência. A não atuação ou a atuação incorreta dos relés de proteção durante uma falta localizada em um componente da rede pode transformar-se em um evento sistêmico de grandes proporções (blecaute). Esses eventos trazem riscos e elevados prejuízos econômicos à sociedade. A proteção dos geradores síncronos, apesar do alto custo e complexidade deste tipo de equipamento, não recebe a mesma atenção na literatura que a dedicada à proteção de outros elementos da rede, como, por exemplo, a das linhas de transmissão. Isso decorre do menor número de geradores existentes na rede e também da ideia que as faltas neste tipo de equipamento são menos frequentes. Este trabalho aborda os principais aspectos envolvidos com o projeto de um sistema de proteção para geradores síncronos de grande porte. Incialmente, discutese os principais conceitos associados com os geradores, de interesse para a tarefa de proteção. Particular atenção é dedicada às formas de aterramento e aos critérios adotados para projeto do resistor de aterramento utilizado nesse equipamento. Em seguida, apresentam-se as principais funções de proteção aplicáveis aos geradores, particularmente aquelas voltadas para a detecção de faltas nos enrolamentos do estator. Discute-se também os critérios de ajustes dos parâmetros dessas funções. Descreve-se o uso de uma plataforma laboratorial, baseada em simulador de tempo real (RTDS), para ensaio e análise do sistema de proteção visando validar seu correto desempenho frente às possíveis condições operativas que podem ser encontradas em campo. Finalmente, utilizando os conceitos desenvolvidos ao longo do trabalho, desenvolve-se um estudo de caso, onde é realizado o projeto e implementação do sistema de proteção dos geradores de uma usina hidrelétrica hipotética. Para avaliar e analisar o desempenho do sistema de proteção dessa rede exemplo, parametrizou-se o IED G60 (GE) e realizou-se inúmeras simulações na plataforma de testes proposta.

Modelagem e análise dinâmica de um sistema de conversão de energia eólica dotado de gerador síncrono de imã permanente utilizando a plataforma ATP

Human development requires a broad balance between ecological, social and economic factors in order to ensure its own sustainability. In this sense, the search for new sources of energy generation, with low deployment and operation costs, which cause the least possible impact to the environment, has been the focus of attention of all society segments. To do so, the reduction in exploration of fossil fuels and the encouragement of using renewable energy resources for distributed generation have proved interesting alternatives to the expansion of the energy matrix of various countries in the world. In this sense, the wind energy has acquired an increasingly significant role, presenting increasing rates of power grid penetration and highlighting technological innovations such as the use of permanent magnet synchronous generators (PMSG). In Brazil, this fact has also been noted and, as a result, the impact of the inclusion of this source in the distribution and sub-transmission power grid has been a major concern of utilities and agents connected to Brazilian electrical sector. Thus, it is relevant the development of appropriate computational tools that allow detailed predictive studies about the dynamic behavior of wind farms, either operating with isolated load, either connected to the main grid, taking also into account the implementation of control strategies for active/reactive power generation and the keeping of adequate levels of voltage and frequency. This work fits in this context since it comprises mathematical and computational developments of a complete wind energy conversion system (WECS) endowed with PMSG using time domain techniques of Alternative Transients Program (ATP), which prides itself a recognized reputation by scientific and academic communities as well as by electricity professionals in Brazil and elsewhere. The modeling procedures performed allowed the elaboration of blocks representing each of the elements of a real WECS, comprising the primary source (the wind), the wind turbine, the PMSG, the frequency converter, the step up transformer, the load composition and the power grid equivalent. Special attention is also given to the implementation of wind turbine control techniques, mainly the pitch control responsible for keeping the generator under the maximum power operation point, and the vector theory that aims at adjusting the active/reactive power flow between the wind turbine and the power grid. Several simulations are performed to investigate the dynamic behavior of the wind farm when subjected to different operating conditions and/or on the occurrence of wind intensity variations. The results have shown the effectiveness of both mathematical and computational modeling developed for the wind turbine and the associated controls.

Characterisation of Large Disturbance Rotor Angle and Voltage Stability in Interconnected Power Networks with Distributed Wind Generation

Wind generation in highly interconnected power networks creates local and centralised stability issues based on their proximity to conventional synchronous generators and load centres. This paper examines the large disturbance stability issues (i.e. rotor angle and voltage stability) in power networks with geographically distributed wind resources in the context of a number of dispatch scenarios based on profiles of historical wind generation for a real power network. Stability issues have been analysed using novel stability indices developed from dynamic characteristics of wind generation. The results of this study show that localised stability issues worsen when significant penetration of both conventional and wind generation is present due to their non-complementary characteristics. In contrast, network stability improves when either high penetration of wind and synchronous generation is present in the network. Therefore, network regions can be clustered into two distinct stability groups (i.e. superior stability and inferior stability regions). Network stability improves when a voltage control strategy is implemented at wind farms, however both stability clusters remain unchanged irrespective of change in the control strategy. Moreover, this study has shown that the enhanced fault ride-through (FRT) strategy for wind farms can improve both voltage and rotor angle stability locally, but only a marginal improvement is evident in neighbouring regions.

Damping Torque Analysis of Power Systems with DFIGs for Wind Power Generation

A grid-connected DFIG for wind power generation can affect power system small-signal angular stability in two ways: by changing the system load flow condition and dynamically interacting with synchronous generators (SGs). This paper presents the application of conventional method of damping torque analysis (DTA) to examine the effect of DFIG’s dynamic interactions with SGs on the small-signal angular stability. It shows that the effect is due to the dynamic variation of power exchange between the DFIG and power system and can be estimated approximately by the DTA. Consequently, if the DFIG is modelled as a constant power source when the effect of zero dynamic interactions is assumed, the impact of change of load flow brought about by the DFIG can be determined. Thus the total effect of DFIG can be estimated from the result of DTA added on that of constant power source model. Applications of the DTA method proposed in the paper are discussed. An example of multi-machine power systems with grid-connected DFIGs are presented to demonstrate and validate the DTA method proposed and conclusions obtained in the paper.