Perylene Diimide acceptors: Fabrication and characterization of electron-only, hole-only devices and solar cells

The thrust towards energy conservation and reduced environmental footprint has fueled intensive research for alternative low cost sources of renewable energy. Organic photovoltaic cells (OPVs), with their low fabrication costs, easy processing and flexibility, represent a possible viable alternative. Perylene diimides (PDIs) are promising electron-acceptor candidates for bulk heterojunction (BHJ) OPVs, as they combine higher absorption and stability with tunable material properties, such as solubility and position of the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) level. A prerequisite for trap free electron transport is for the LUMO to be located at a level deeper than 3.7 eV since electron trapping in organic semiconductors is universal and dominated by a trap level located at 3.6 eV. Although the mostly used fullerene acceptors in polymer:fullerene solar cells feature trap-free electron transport, low optical absorption of fullerene derivatives limits maximum attainable efficiency. In this thesis, we try to get a better understanding of the electronic properties of PDIs, with a focus on charge carrier transport characteristics and the effect of different processing conditions such as annealing temperature and top contact (cathode) material. We report on a commercially available PDI and three PDI derivatives as acceptor materials, and its blends with MEH-PPV (Poly[2-methoxy 5-(2-ethylhexyloxy)-1,4-phenylenevinylene]) and P3HT (Poly(3-hexylthiophene-2,5-diyl)) donor materials in single carrier devices (electron-only and hole-only) and in solar cells. Space-charge limited current measurements and modelling of temperature dependent J-V characteristics confirmed that the electron transport is essentially trap-free in such materials. Different blend ratios of P3HT:PDI-1 (1:1) and (1:3) show increase in the device performance with increasing PDI-1 ratio. Furthermore, thermal annealing of the devices have a significant effect in the solar cells that decreases open-circuit voltage (Voc) and fill factor FF, but increases short-circuit current (Jsc) and overall device performance. Morphological studies show that over-aggregation in traditional donor:PDI blend systems is still a big problem, which hinders charge carrier transport and performance in solar cells.

INCIDENCE OF MYCOBACTERIUM-TUBERCULOSIS AND OTHER MYCOBACTERIA ON PULMONARY INFECTIONS IN ARARAQUARA - SP, 1993

The incidence of tuberculosis and other infections by mycobacteria was analyzed in 559 patients admitted to the Tisiology Section of the Special Health Care Unit of Araraquara (SESA). Mycobacteria were isolated from 78 individuals out of this total. Among these patients, 15 were also HIV positive. The occurrence of isolated species was: M. tuberculosis: 69 patients; M. avium-intracellulare: 5 patients; M. fortuitum: 2 patients; M. chelonae: 1 patient; and M. simiae 1 patient. The latter was for the first time isolated from humans in Brazil. In most cases, non tubercular mycobacteria (NTM) were found in the HIV positive patients.

Polialchiltiofeni contenenti derivati porfirinici per applicazioni in celle solari polimeriche

Il presente lavoro di tesi di laurea magistrale si è proposto di sintetizzare composti polimerici basati su un derivato del 3-esiltiofene e sulla porfirina per preparare materiali da utilizzare nelle celle fotovoltaiche. Politiofeni con queste caratteristiche sono stati sintetizzati a partire da un monomero -bromoalchiltiofenico, il 3-(6-bromoesil)tiofene (T6Br), dal quale è stato ottenuto il corrispondente derivato polimerico poli[3-(6-bromoesil)]tiofene (PT6Br). Esso è stato preparato con un metodo non regiospecifico, utilizzando la comune tecnica di polimerizzazione ossidativa in presenza di FeCl3. Il monomero T6Br è stato funzionalizzato con idrossifenil porfirina (TPPOH) per dare il 3-[5-(4-fenossi)-10,15,20-trifenilporfirinil]esiltiofene (T6TPP). Poiché la polimerizzazione diretta di questo monomero non si è mostrata una via percorribile, a causa dell’elevato ingombro del sostituente presente sulla catena macromolecolare, è stata effettuata l’eterificazione sul polimero bromurato PT6Br per ottenere il poli[3-[5-(4-fenossi)-10,15,20-trifenilporfirinil]esiltiofene] (PT6TPP). Contemporaneamente è stato sintetizzato il copolimero poli[(3-(6-bromoesil)]tiofene)-co-(3-[5-(4-fenossi)-10,15,20-trifenilporfirinil]esiltiofene)] (P(T6Br-co-T6TPP)) allo scopo di valutare l’effetto del diverso grado di sostituzione della catena polimerica sulle proprietà del polimero. Anch’esso è stato preparato con un metodo non regiospecifico, utilizzando la tecnica di polimerizzazione ossidativa in presenza di FeCl3. I prodotti sintetizzati sono stati caratterizzati mediante le comuni tecniche spettroscopiche (FTIR, NMR, UV-vis) e ne sono state determinate le proprietà termiche. I pesi molecolari medi e le relative distribuzioni sono stati determinati mediante cromatografia a permeazione su gel (GPC). Infine, con P(T6Br-co-T6TPP) e PT6Br sono state effettuate prove preliminari di preparazione e caratterizzazione di dispositivi per valutare la possibilità di un loro utilizzo come materiali per celle fotovoltaiche.

Sintesi e proprieta di copolimeri tiofenici funzionalizzati per applicazioni fotovoltaiche

Il presente lavoro di tesi di laurea magistrale è stato incentrato sulla sintesi e caratterizzazione di due copolimeri regioregolari poli[3-esiltiofene-co-(3-[5-(4-fenossi)-10,15,20-trifenilporfinil]esiltiofene)] contenenti diversa percentuale di sostituente porfirinico, ottenuti per post-funzionalizzazione con 5-(4-idrossifenil)-10,15,20-trifenilporfirina di due copolimeri regioregolari poli[3-esiltiofene-co-(3-(6-bromoesil)tiofene)] contenenti diverse percentuali di sostituente esilico bromurato, appositamente sintetizzati. E’ stato inoltre preparato il copolimero non regioregolare poli[3-dodeciltiofene-co-(3-[5-(4-fenossi)-10,15,20-trifenilporfinil]esiltiofene)] partendo da un comonomero con una catena alchilica laterale più lunga, il 3-dodeciltiofene, per evitare l’eventuale insolubilità del copolimero finale e per avere un ulteriore termine di paragone derivante dall’utilizzo di catene alchiliche di diversa lunghezza. I prodotti polimerici sintetizzati sono stati caratterizzati mediante tecniche spettroscopiche (NMR, FT-IR, UV-Vis), ne sono state determinate le proprietà termiche tramite analisi DSC e TGA ed i pesi molecolari medi con la relativa distribuzione, mediante cromatografia a permeazione su gel (GPC). Tali derivati sono stati successivamente testati attraverso prove di preparazione e caratterizzazione di dispositivi fotovoltaici, Le prestazioni delle celle fotovoltaiche realizzate utilizzando i copolimeri prodotti sono state misurate tramite un multimetro Keithley ed un Solar Simulator, che permette di riprodurre l’intero spettro della radiazione solare.

Charge transport properties of organic conjugated polymers for photovoltaic applications

Charge transport in conjugated polymers as well as in bulk-heterojunction (BHJ) solar cells made of blends between conjugated polymers, as electron-donors (D), and fullerenes, as electron-acceptors (A), has been investigated. It is shown how charge carrier mobility of a series of anthracene-containing poly(p-phenylene-ethynylene)-alt-poly(p-phenylene-vinylene)s (AnE-PVs) is highly dependent on the lateral chain of the polymers, on a moderate variation of the macromolecular parameters (molecular weight and polydispersity), and on the processing conditions of the films. For the first time, the good ambipolar transport properties of this relevant class of conjugated polymers have been demonstrated, consistent with the high delocalization of both the frontier molecular orbitals. Charge transport is one of the key parameters in the operation of BHJ solar cells and depends both on charge carrier mobility in pristine materials and on the nanoscale morphology of the D/A blend, as proved by the results here reported. A straight correlation between hole mobility in pristine AnE-PVs and the fill factor of the related solar cells has been found. The great impact of charge transport for the performance of BHJ solar cells is clearly demonstrated by the results obtained on BHJ solar cells made of neat-C70, instead of the common soluble fullerene derivatives (PCBM or PC70BM). The investigation of neat-C70 solar cells was motivated by the extremely low cost of non-functionalized fullerenes, compared with that of their soluble derivatives (about one-tenth). For these cells, an improper morphology of the blend leads to a deterioration of charge carrier mobility, which, in turn, increases charge carrier recombination. Thanks to the appropriate choice of the donor component, solar cells made of neat-C70 exhibiting an efficiency of 4.22% have been realized, with an efficiency loss of just 12% with respect to the counterpart made with costly PC70BM.

Sintesi e caratterizzazione di nuovi materiali politioalchiltiofenici per applicazioni in celle solari bulk-heterojunction

L’oggetto della presente tesi di laurea magistrale consiste nello studio di polimeri coniugati nella catena principale, per una loro applicazione come materiali fotoattivi in celle fotovoltaiche. In particolare, sono stati sintetizzati e caratterizzati politiofeni tioalchil sostituiti, funzionalizzati in posizione 3-3' con catene alchiliche di diversa lunghezza e grado di ramificazione (tra cui una chirale), al fine di studiarne l'effetto sulle proprietà ottiche ed elettriche del materiale. I polimeri ottenuti sono stati caratterizzati mediante tecniche spettroscopiche (1H-NMR, UV-PL), cromatografia a permeazione su gel (GPC), analisi termiche (DSC, TGA) e misure elettrochimiche (voltammetria ciclica). Il comportamento chiro-ottico del campione chirale è stato inoltre valutato tramite misure di dicroismo circolare. Si è infine testata l’efficienza delle celle fotovoltaiche ottenute utilizzando i polimeri sintetizzati come materiale fotoattivo.

Synthesis of novel organic semiconductors for optoelectronic devices

This thesis describes the synthesis and characterisation of novel conjugated organic materials with optoelectronic application. The first chapter provides an introduction about organic semiconductors and in particular about their working principle from a physical and chemical point of view. An overview of the most common types of solar cells is provided, including examples of some of the best performing materials. The second chapter describes the synthesis of a new library of flavin derivatives as potential active materials for optoelectronic applications. Flavins are natural redox-active molecules, which show potential application in optoelectronics, thanks to their stability and versatility. FPF-Flavins, for instance, could be used either as acceptor units in push-pull polyconjugated systems or as acceptor unit in dyes for DSSCs. In the same chapter a first attempt of synthesising bis-flavins to be used as N-type semiconductors in BHJ devices is described. The third chapter describes the successful synthesis and characterization of a series of conjugated organic molecules based on the benzothiadiazole moiety. Among these, three molecules containing ferrocene as donor unit were tested as sensitizers for DSSCs, reporting a PCE of 0.3% as the best result. Further studies indicated a significant problem of charge recombination which limits the performance. A near-infrared absorbing push-pull polymer, based on BbT as acceptor unit, was also synthesised and tested in BHJ devices as P-type semiconductor in blend with PC71BM, showing a VOC of 0.71 V. Finally, the last chapter describes the synthesis of several tetrathiafulvalene derivatives in order to explore this moiety as donor unit in dyes for DSSCs and as HTM for perovskite-based solar cells. In particular, two very simple dyes were synthesised and implemented in DSSCs reporting a PCE 0.2% and 0.4%, respectively. The low efficiency was associated to the tendency to aggregate at the solid state, with the absorption shifting from the visible to the infrared range. A conjugated molecule, containing a DPP core, was also synthesised and tested as HTM for perovskite solar cells. The best reported PCE of 7.7% was obtained without any additives. A case study about dehalogenation and “halogen dance” in TTF iodide is also presented.

New functional polythiophene based materials: fine-tuning of photovoltaic or chiroptical properties

There is a remarkable level of interest in the development of π-conjugated polymers (ICPs) which have been employed, thanks to their promising optical and electronic properties, in numerous applications including photovoltaic cells, light emitting diodes and thin-film transistors. Although high power conversion efficiency can be reached using poly(3-alkylthiophenes) (P3ATs) as electron-donating materials in polymeric solar cells of the Bulk-Heterojunction type (BHJ), their relatively large band gap limits the solar spectrum fraction that can be utilized. The research work described in this dissertation thus concerns the synthesis, characterization and study of the optical and photoactivity properties of new organic semiconducting materials based on polythiophenes. In detail, various narrow band gap polymers and copolymers were developed through different approaches and were characterized by several complementary techniques, such as gel permeation chromatography (GPC), NMR spectroscopy, thermal analyses (DSC, TGA), UV-Vis/PL spectroscopy and cyclic voltammetry (CV), in order to investigate their structural and chemical/photophysical properties. Moreover, the polymeric derivatives were tested as active material in air-processed organic solar cells. The activity has also been devoted to investigate the behavior of polythiophenes with chiral side chain, that are fascinating materials capable to assume helix supramolecular structures, exhibiting optical activity in the aggregated state.