Étude des voies d’apprêtement des antigènes viraux menant à la présentation antigénique par les CMH de classe I

Le contrôle immunitaire des infections virales est effectué, en grande partie, par les lymphocytes T CD8+ cytotoxiques. Pour y parvenir, les lymphocytes T CD8+ doivent être en mesure de reconnaître les cellules infectées et de les éliminer. Cette reconnaissance des cellules infectées s’effectue par l’interaction du récepteur T (TCR) des lymphocytes T CD8+ et des peptides viraux associés au complexe majeur d’histocompatibilité (CMH) de classe I à la surface des cellules hôtes. Cette interaction constitue l’élément déclencheur permettant l’élimination de la cellule infectée. On comprend donc toute l’importance des mécanismes cellulaires menant à la génération des peptides antigéniques à partir des protéines virales produites au cours d’une infection. La vision traditionnelle de cet apprêtement protéique menant à la présentation d’antigènes par les molécules du CMH propose deux voies cataboliques distinctes. En effet, il est largement admis que les antigènes endogènes sont apprêtés par la voie dite ‘‘classique’’ de présentation antigénique par les CMH de classe I. Cette voie implique la dégradation des antigènes intracellulaires par le protéasome dans le cytoplasme, le transport des peptides résultant de cette dégradation à l’intérieur du réticulum endoplasmique, leur chargement sur les molécules du CMH de classe I et finalement le transport des complexes peptide-CMH à la surface de la cellule où ils pourront activer les lymphocytes T CD8+. Dans la seconde voie impliquant des antigènes exogènes, le dogme veut que ceux-ci soient apprêtés par les protéases du compartiment endovacuolaire. Les peptides ainsi générés sont directement chargés sur les molécules de CMH de classe II à l’intérieur de ce compartiment. Par la suite, des mécanismes de recyclage vésiculaire assurent le transport des complexes peptide-CMH de classe II à la surface de la cellule afin de stimuler les lymphocytes T CD4+. Cependant, cette stricte ségrégation des voies d’apprêtement antigénique a été durement éprouvée par la capacité des cellules présentatrices d’antigènes à effectuer l’apprêtement d’antigènes exogènes et permettre leur présentation sur des molécules de CMH de classe I. De plus, l’identification récente de peptides d’origine intracellulaire associés à des molécules de CMH de classe II a clairement indiqué la présence d’interactions entre les deux voies d’apprêtement antigénique permettant de transgresser le dogme préalablement établi. L’objectif du travail présenté ici était de caractériser les voies d’apprêtement antigénique menant à la présentation d’antigènes viraux par les molécules du CMH de classe I lors d’une infection par le virus de l’Herpès simplex de type I (HSV-1). Dans les résultats rapportés ici, nous décrivons une nouvelle voie d’apprêtement antigénique résultant de la formation d’autophagosomes dans les cellules infectées. Cette nouvelle voie permet le transfert d’antigènes viraux vers un compartiment vacuolaire dégradatif dans la phase tardive de l’infection par le virus HSV-1. Cette mise en branle d’une seconde voie d’apprêtement antigénique permet d’augmenter le niveau de présentation de la glycoprotéine B (gB) virale utilisée comme modèle dans cette étude. De plus, nos résultats décrivent la formation d’une nouvelle forme d’autophagosomes dérivés de l’enveloppe nucléaire en réponse à l’infection par le virus HSV-1. Ces nouveaux autophagosomes permettent le transfert d’antigènes viraux vers un compartiment vacuolaire lytique, action également assurée par les autophagosomes dits classiques. Dans la deuxième partie du travail présenté ici, nous utilisons l’infection par le virus HSV-1 et la production de la gB qui en résulte pour étudier le trafic membranaire permettant le transfert de la gB vers un compartiment vacuolaire dégradatif. Nos résultats mettent en valeur l’importance du réticulum endoplasmique, et des compartiments autophagiques qui en dérivent, dans ces mécanismes de transfert antigénique permettant d’amplifier la présentation antigénique de la protéine virale gB sur des CMH de classe I via une voie vacuolaire. L’ensemble de nos résultats démontrent également une étroite collaboration entre la voie classique de présentation antigénique par les CMH de classe I et la voie vacuolaire soulignant, encore une fois, la présence d’interaction entre les deux voies.

L'évolution du phagosome

La phagocytose est un processus cellulaire par lequel de larges particules sont internalisées dans une vésicule, le phagosome. Lorsque formé, le phagosome acquiert ses propriétés fonctionnelles à travers un processus complexe de maturation nommé la biogénèse du phagolysosome. Cette voie implique une série d’interactions rapides avec les organelles de l’appareil endocytaire permettant la transformation graduelle du phagosome nouvellement formé en phagolysosome à partir duquel la dégradation protéolytique s’effectue. Chez l’amibe Dictyostelium discoideum, la phagocytose est employée pour ingérer les bactéries de son environnement afin de se nourrir alors que les organismes multicellulaires utilisent la phagocytose dans un but immunitaire, où des cellules spécialisées nommées phagocytes internalisent, tuent et dégradent les pathogènes envahissant de l’organisme et constitue la base de l’immunité innée. Chez les vertébrés à mâchoire cependant, la transformation des mécanismes moléculaires du phagosome en une organelle perfectionnée pour l’apprêtement et la présentation de peptides antigéniques place cette organelle au centre de l’immunité innée et de l’immunité acquise. Malgré le rôle crucial auquel participe cette organelle dans la réponse immunitaire, il existe peu de détails sur la composition protéique et l’organisation fonctionnelles du phagosome. Afin d’approfondir notre compréhension des divers aspects qui relient l’immunité innée et l’immunité acquise, il devient essentiel d’élargir nos connaissances sur les fonctions moléculaire qui sont recrutées au phagosome. Le profilage par protéomique à haut débit de phagosomes isolés fut extrêmement utile dans la détermination de la composition moléculaire de cette organelle. Des études provenant de notre laboratoire ont révélé les premières listes protéiques identifiées à partir de phagosomes murins sans toutefois déterminer le ou les rôle(s) de ces protéines lors du processus de la phagocytose (Brunet et al, 2003; Garin et al, 2001). Au cours de la première étude de cette thèse (Stuart et al, 2007), nous avons entrepris la caractérisation fonctionnelle du protéome entier du phagosome de la drosophile en combinant diverses techniques d’analyses à haut débit (protéomique, réseaux d’intéractions protéique et ARN interférent). En utilisant cette stratégie, nous avons identifié 617 protéines phagosomales par spectrométrie de masse à partir desquelles nous avons accru cette liste en construisant des réseaux d’interactions protéine-protéine. La contribution de chaque protéine à l’internalisation de bactéries fut ensuite testée et validée par ARN interférent à haut débit et nous a amené à identifier un nouveau régulateur de la phagocytose, le complexe de l’exocyst. En appliquant ce modèle combinatoire de biologie systémique, nous démontrons la puissance et l’efficacité de cette approche dans l’étude de processus cellulaire complexe tout en créant un cadre à partir duquel il est possible d’approfondir nos connaissances sur les différents mécanismes de la phagocytose. Lors du 2e article de cette thèse (Boulais et al, 2010), nous avons entrepris la caractérisation moléculaire des étapes évolutives ayant contribué au remodelage des propriétés fonctionnelles de la phagocytose au cours de l’évolution. Pour ce faire, nous avons isolé des phagosomes à partir de trois organismes distants (l’amibe Dictyostelium discoideum, la mouche à fruit Drosophila melanogaster et la souris Mus musculus) qui utilisent la phagocytose à des fins différentes. En appliquant une approche protéomique à grande échelle pour identifier et comparer le protéome et phosphoprotéome des phagosomes de ces trois espèces, nous avons identifié un cœur protéique commun à partir duquel les fonctions immunitaires du phagosome se seraient développées. Au cours de ce développement fonctionnel, nos données indiquent que le protéome du phagosome fut largement remodelé lors de deux périodes de duplication de gènes coïncidant avec l’émergence de l’immunité innée et acquise. De plus, notre étude a aussi caractérisée en détail l’acquisition de nouvelles protéines ainsi que le remodelage significatif du phosphoprotéome du phagosome au niveau des constituants du cœur protéique ancien de cette organelle. Nous présentons donc la première étude approfondie des changements qui ont engendré la transformation d’un compartiment phagotrophe à une organelle entièrement apte pour la présentation antigénique.

Unveiling the components of the signaling pathway between endosomes and the phagocytic uptake machinery in Dictyostelium discoideum

The soil amoebae Dictyostelium discoideum take up particles from their environment in order to obtain nutrition. The particle transits through the cell within a phagosome that fuses with organelles of different molecular compositions, undergoing a gradual degradation by different sets of hydrolytic enzymes. Griffiths’ concept of “phagosome individuality” predicts signaling from phagosomes into the cytoplasm, which might regulate many aspects of cell physiology. The finding that Dictyostelium cells depleted of the lysozyme AlyA or over-expressing the esterase Gp70 exhibit increased uptake of food particles, led to the postulation of a signaling cascade between endocytic compartments and the cytoskeletal uptake machinery at the plasma membrane. Assuming that Gp70 acts downstream of AlyA, gene-expression profiling of both mutants revealed different and overlapping sets of misregulated genes that might participate in this signaling cascade. Based on these results, we analyzed the effects of the artificial misregulation of six candidate genes by over-expression or negative genetic interference, in order to reconstruct at least part of the signaling pathway. SSB420 and SSL793 were chosen as candidates for the first signaling step, as they were up-regulated in AlyA-null cells and remained unaltered in the Gp70 over-expressing cells. The over-expression of SSB420 enhanced phagocytosis and raised the expression levels of Gp70, supporting its involvement in the signaling pathway between AlyA and Gp70 as a positive regulator of phagocytosis. However, this was not the case of cells over-expressing SSL793, as this mutation had no effects on phagocytosis. For the signaling downstream of Gp70, we studied four commonly misregulated genes in AlyA-depleted and Gp70 over-expressing cells. The expression levels of SLB350, SSB389 and TipD were lower in both mutants and therefore these were assumed as possible candidates for the negative regulation of phagocytosis. Cells depleted of SLB350 exhibited an increased phagocytic activity and no effect on Gp70 expression, proving its participation in the signaling pathway downstream of Gp70. Unlike SLB350, the disruption of the genes coding for SSB389 and TipD had no effects on particle uptake, excluding them from the pathway. The fourth candidate was Yipf1, the only gene that was commonly up-regulated in both mutants. Yet, the artificial over-expression of this protein had no effects on phagocytosis, so this candidate is also not included in the signaling pathway. Furthermore, localizing the products of the candidate genes within the cell helped unveiling several cellular organelles that receive signals from the phagosome and transduce them towards the uptake machinery.

Morphological alteration of peritoneal mast cells and macrophages in the mouse peritoneal cavity during the early phases of an allergic inflammatory reaction

We investigated the presence of mast cell granules in macrophages following an in vivo model of an allergic reaction. Injection of ovalbumin (100 mug) into the peritoneal cavity of sensitised mice produced a rapid (within 2 h) influx of neutrophils followed by a slower (after >4 h) eosinophil migration. Ovalbumin treatment induced a high incidence (similar to 50%) of mast cell degranulation compared to control phosphated-buffered saline-treated mice. The majority (similar to 90%) of peritoneal macrophages contained mast cell granules as early as 2 It post-ovalbumin, with lower values at later time-points, as determined by staining with Toluidine blue and Berberine sulphate. This was confirmed by electron microscopy which enabled us to identify the complex mast cell granule sub-structural components in macrophage phagosomes. In conclusion, we used histochemical and ultrastructural analyses to show that mast cell granules become internalised with macrophages during the early stages of an experimental allergic reaction. (C) 2001 Academic Press.

Host cell responses of Salmonella typhimurium infected human dendritic cells

Live attenuated Salmonella are attractive vaccine candidates for mucosal application because they induce both mucosal immune responses and systematic immune responses. After breaking the epithelium barrier, Salmonella typhimurium is found within dendritic cells (DC) in the Peyer's patches. Although there are abundant data on the interaction of S. typhimurium with murine epithelial cells, macrophages and DC, little is known about its interaction with human DC. Live attenuated S. typhimurium have recently been shown to efficiently infect human DC in vitro and induce production of cytokines. In this study, we have analysed the morphological consequences of infection of human DC by the attenuated S. typhimurium mutant strains designated PhoPc, AroA and SipB and the wild-type strains of the American Type Culture Collection (Manassas, VA, USA), ATCC 14028 and ATCC C53, by electron microscopy at 30 min, 3 h and 24 h after exposure. Our results show that genetic background of the strains profoundly influence DC morphology following infection. The changes included (i) membrane ruffling; (ii) formation of tight or spacious phagosomes; (iii) apoptosis; and (iv) spherical, pedunculated membrane-bound microvesicles that project from the plasma membrane. Despite the fact that membrane ruffling was much more pronounced with the two virulent strains, all mutants were taken up by the DC. The microvesicles were induced by all the attenuated strains, including SipB, which did not induce apoptosis in the host cell. These results suggest that Salmonella is internalized by human DC, inducing morphological changes in the DC that could explain immunogenicity of the attenuated strains.

Localized diacylglycerol-dependent stimulation of Ras and Rap1 during phagocytosis.

We describe a role for diacylglycerol in the activation of Ras and Rap1 at the phagosomal membrane. During phagocytosis, Ras density was similar on the surface and invaginating areas of the membrane, but activation was detectable only in the latter and in sealed phagosomes. Ras activation was associated with the recruitment of RasGRP3, a diacylglycerol-dependent Ras/Rap1 exchange factor. Recruitment to phagosomes of RasGRP3, which contains a C1 domain, parallels and appears to be due to the formation of diacylglycerol. Accordingly, Ras and Rap1 activation was precluded by antagonists of phospholipase C and of diacylglycerol binding. Ras is dispensable for phagocytosis but controls activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase, which is partially impeded by diacylglycerol inhibitors. By contrast, cross-activation of complement receptors by stimulation of Fcgamma receptors requires Rap1 and involves diacylglycerol. We suggest a role for diacylglycerol-dependent exchange factors in the activation of Ras and Rap1, which govern distinct processes induced by Fcgamma receptor-mediated phagocytosis to enhance the innate immune response.

NOVEL MECHANISMS OF ANTIGEN PROCESSING THAT ENHANCE BCG VACCINE EFFICACY

Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the causative agent of tuberculosis, is the most lethal single infectious agent afflicting man today causing 2 million deaths per year. The World Health Organization recommends a vaccine as the best option to prevent this disease. The current vaccine, BCG, has a variable efficacy and does not protect adults. It is known that BCG vaccine becomes sequestered in special phagosome compartments of macrophages that do not fuse with lysosomes. Since lysosome fusion is necessary for peptide production and T cell priming leading to protective TH1 immunity, we hypothesized that vaccine efficacy is reduced and occurs perhaps due to non-lysosome dependent mechanisms. We therefore proposed an in depth analysis of phagosome environment, and its proteome to unravel mechanisms of antigen processing and presentation. We initially discovered that three mechanisms of pH regulation including vacuolar proton ATPase, phagocyte oxidase and superoxide dismutase (SOD) secretion from BCG vaccine affect antigen processing within phagosomes. These studies led to the discovery that a mutant of BCG vaccine which lacked SOD was a better vaccine. Subsequently, the proteomic analysis of vaccine phagosomes led to the discovery of novel protease (γ-secretase) enriched on BCG vaccine phagosomes. We then demonstrated that these proteases generated a peptide from the BCG vaccine which was presented through the MHC-II pathway to T cells and induced a TH1 response. The specificity of antigen production from γ-secretase was confirmed through siRNA knockdown of the components of the protease namely, nicastrin, presenilin and APH, which led to a decrease in antigen presentation. We therefore conclude that, even though BCG phagosomes are sequestered and do not fuse with lysosomes to generate peptide antigens, there are complex and novel in situ mechanisms within phagosomes that are capable of generating an immune response. We conclude that TH1 immunity to BCG vaccine arises mostly due to non-lysosome dependent immune mechanisms of macrophages and dendritic cells.

INDUCTION OF STRONGER AND LONG LASTING VACCINE IMMUNITY TO TUBERCULOSIS

Tuberculosis is a major cause of death due to an infection in mankind. BCG vaccine protects against childhood tuberculosis although, it fails to protect against adult tuberculosis. BCG vaccine localizes to immature phagosomes of macrophages, and avoids lysosomal fusion, which decreases peptide antigen production. Peptides are essential for macrophage-mediated priming of CD4 and CD8 T cells respectively through MHC-II and MHC-I pathways. Furthermore, BCG reduces the expression of MHC-II in macrophages of mice after infection, through Toll-like receptor-1/2 (TLR-1/2) mediated signaling. In my first aim, I hypothesized that BCG-induced reduction of MHC-II levels in macrophages can decrease CD4 T cell function, while activation of other surface Toll-like receptors (TLR) can enhance CD4 T cell function. An in vitro antigen presentation model was used where, TLR activated macrophages presented an epitope of Ag85B, a major immunogen of BCG to CD4 T cells, and T cell derived IL-2 was quantitated as a measure of antigen presentation. Macrophages with BCG were poor presenters of Ag85B while, TLR-7/9/5/4 and 1/2 activation led to an enhanced antigen presentation. Furthermore, TLR-7/9 activation was found to down-regulate the degradation of MHC-II through ubiquitin ligase MARCH1, and also stimulate MHC-II expression through activation of AP-1 and CREB transcription elements via p38 and ERK1/2 MAP kinases. I conclude from Aim-I studies that TLR-7/9 ligands can be used as more effective ‘adjuvants’ for BCG vaccine. In Aim-II, I evaluated the poor CD8 T cell function in BCG vaccinated mice thought to be due to a decreased leak of antigens into cytosol from immature phagosomes, which reduces the MHC-I mediated activation of CD8 T cells. I hypothesized that rapamycin co-treatment could boost CD8 T cell function since it was known to sort BCG vaccine into lysosomes increasing peptide generation, and it also enhanced the longevity of CD8 T cells. Since CD8 T cell function is a dynamic event better measurable in vivo, mice were given BCG vaccine with or without rapamycin injections and challenged with virulent Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Organs were analysed for tetramer or surface marker stained CD8 T cells using flow cytometry, and bacterial counts of organisms for evaluation of BCG-induced protection. Co-administration of rapamycin with BCG significantly increased the numbers of CD8 T cells in mice which developed into both short living effector- SLEC type of CD8 T cells, and memory precursor effector-MPEC type of longer-living CD8 T cells. Increased levels of tetramer specific-CD8 T cells correlated with a better protection against tuberculosis in rapamycin-BCG group compared to BCG vaccinated mice. When rapamycin-BCG mice were rested and re-challenged with M.tuberculosis, MPECs underwent stronger recall expansion and protected better against re-infection than mice vaccinated with BCG alone. Since BCG induced immunity wanes with time in humans, we made two novel observations in this study that adjuvant activation of BCG vaccine and rapamycin co-treatment both lead to a stronger and longer vaccine-mediated immunity to tuberculosis.

ATP-dependent Membrane Assembly of F-Actin Facilitates Membrane Fusion

We recently established an in vitro assay that monitors the fusion between latex-bead phagosomes and endocytic organelles in the presence of J774 macrophage cytosol (Jahraus et al., 1998). Here, we show that different reagents affecting the actin cytoskeleton can either inhibit or stimulate this fusion process. Because the membranes of purified phagosomes can assemble F-actin de novo from pure actin with ATP (Defacque et al., 2000a), we focused here on the ability of membranes to nucleate actin in the presence of J774 cytosolic extracts. For this, we used F-actin sedimentation, pyrene actin assays, and torsional rheometry, a biophysical approach that could provide kinetic information on actin polymerization and gel formation. We make two major conclusions. First, under our standard in vitro conditions (4 mg/ml cytosol and 1 mM ATP), the presence of membranes actively catalyzed the assembly of cytosolic F-actin, which assembled into highly viscoelastic gels. A model is discussed that links these results to how the actin may facilitate fusion. Second, cytosolic actin paradoxically polymerized more under ATP depletion than under high-ATP conditions, even in the absence of membranes; we discuss these data in the context of the well described, large increases in F-actin seen in many cells during ischemia.

Afipia felis induces uptake by macrophages directly into a nonendocytic compartment

Afipia felis is a Gram-negative bacterium that causes some cases of human Cat Scratch Disease. A. felis can survive and multiply in several mammalian cell types, including macrophages, but the precise intracellular compartmentalization of A. felis-containing phagosomes is unknown. Here, we demonstrate that, in murine macrophages, most A. felis-containing phagosomes exclude lysosomal tracer loaded into macrophage lysosomes before, as well as endocytic tracer loaded after, establishment of an infection. Established Afipia-containing phagosomes possess neither early endosomal marker proteins [early endosome antigen 1 (EEA1), Rab5, transferrin receptor, trytophane aspartate containing coat protein (TACO)] nor late endosomal or lysosomal proteins [cathepsin D, β-glucuronidase, vacuolar proton-pumping ATPase, rab7, mannose-6-phosphate receptor, vesicle-associated membrane protein 8, lysosome-associated membrane proteins LAMP-1 and LAMP-2]. Those bacteria that will be found in a nonendosomal compartment enter the macrophage via an EEA1-negative compartment, which remains negative for LAMP-1. The smaller subpopulation of afipiae whose phagosomes will be part of the endocytic system enters into an EEA1-positive compartment, which also subsequently acquires LAMP-1. Killing of Afipia or opsonization with immune antibodies leads to a strong increase in the percentage of A. felis-containing phagosomes that interact with the endocytic system. We conclude that most phagosomes containing A. felis are disconnected from the endosome–lysosome continuum, that their unusual compartmentalization is decided at uptake, and that this compartmentalization requires bacterial viability.

Phagocytosis of Photoreceptor Outer Segments by Transplanted Human Neural Stem Cells as a Neuroprotective Mechanism in Retinal Degeneration

Purpose. Transplantation of human central nervous system stem cells (HuCNS-SC) into the subretinal space of Royal College of Surgeons (RCS) rats preserves photoreceptors and visual function. To explore possible mechanism(s) of action underlying this neuroprotective effect, we performed a detailed morphologic and ultrastructure analysis of HuCNS-SC transplanted retinas. Methods. The HuCNS-SC were transplanted into the subretinal space of RCS rats. Histologic examination of the transplanted retinas was performed by light and electron microscopy. Areas of the retina adjacent to HuCNS-SC graft (treated regions) were analyzed and compared to control sections obtained from the same retina, but distant from the transplant site (untreated regions). Results. The HuCNS-SC were detected as a layer of STEM 121 immunopositive cells in the subretinal space. In treated regions, preserved photoreceptor nuclei, as well as inner and outer segments were identified readily. In contrast, classic signs of degeneration were observed in the untreated regions. Interestingly, detailed ultrastructure analysis revealed a striking preservation of the photoreceptor–bipolar–horizontal cell synaptic contacts in the outer plexiform layer (OPL) of treated areas, in stark contrast with untreated areas. Finally, the presence of phagosomes and vesicles exhibiting the lamellar structure of outer segments also was detected within the cytosol of HuCNS-SC, indicating that these cells have phagocytic capacity in vivo. Conclusions. This study reveals the novel finding that preservation of specialized synaptic contacts between photoreceptors and second order neurons, as well as phagocytosis of photoreceptor outer segments, are potential mechanism(s) of HuCNS-SC transplantation, mediating functional rescue in retinal degeneration.

Seventeen a-subunit isoforms of paramecium V-ATPase provide high specialization in localization and function

In the Paramecium tetraurelia genome, 17 genes encoding the 100-kDa-subunit (a-subunit) of the vacuolar-proton-ATPase were identified, representing by far the largest number of a-subunit genes encountered in any organism investigated so far. They group into nine clusters, eight pairs with >82% amino acid identity and one single gene. Green fluorescent protein-tagging of representatives of the nine clusters revealed highly specific targeting to at least seven different compartments, among them dense core secretory vesicles (trichocysts), the contractile vacuole complex, and phagosomes. RNA interference for two pairs confirmed their functional specialization in their target compartments: silencing of the trichocyst-specific form affected this secretory pathway, whereas silencing of the contractile vacuole complex-specific form altered organelle structure and functioning. The construction of chimeras between selected a-subunits surprisingly revealed the targeting signal to be located in the C terminus of the protein, in contrast with the N-terminal targeting signal of the a-subunit in yeast. Interestingly, some chimeras provoked deleterious effects, locally in their target compartment, or remotely, in the compartment whose specific a-subunit N terminus was used in the chimera.

The cellular and mechanistic study of nisin inhibition of bacillus anthracis spore outgrowth, nisin alteration of infection, and native producer immunity

A critical step during Bacillus anthracis infection is the outgrowth of germinated spores into vegetative bacilli that proliferate and disseminate rapidly within the host. An important challenge exists for developing chemotherapeutic agents that act upon and kill B. anthracis immediately after germination initiation when antibiotic resistance is lost, but prior to the outgrowth into vegetative bacilli, which is accompanied by toxin production. Chemical agents must also function in a manner refractive to the development of antimicrobial resistance. In this thesis we have identified the lantibiotics as a class of chemotherapeutics that are predicted to satisfy these two criteria. The objective of this thesis was to evaluate the efficacy of nisin, a prototypical lantibiotic, in prevention of outgrowth of germinated B. anthracis spores. Like all lantibiotics, nisin is a ribosomally translated peptide that undergoes post-translational modification to form (methyl)lanthionine rings that are critical for antimicrobial activity. Our studies indicate that nisin rapidly inhibits the in vitro outgrowth of germinated B. anthracis Sterne 7702 spores. Although germination initiation was shown to be essential for nisin-dependent antimicrobial activity, nisin did not inhibit or promote germination initiation. Nisin irreversibly killed germinated spores by blocking the establishment of a membrane potential and oxidative metabolism, while not affecting the dissolution of the outer spore structures. The membrane permeability of the spore was increased by nisin, but germinated spores did not undergo full lysis. Nisin was demonstrated to localize to lipid II, which is the penultimate precursor for cell wall biogenesis. This localization suggests two possible independent mechanisms of action, membrane pore formation and inhibition of peptidoglycan synthesis. Structure-activity studies with a truncated form of nisin lacking the two C-terminal (methyl)lanthionine rings and with non-pore forming mutants indicated that membrane disruption is essential for nisin-dependent inhibition of spore outgrowth to prevent membrane potential establishment. Finally, utilizing an in vitro infection model, it was shown that nisin reduced the viability of B. anthracis spores within an infection resulting in increased survival of immune cells while reducing infection-mediated cytokine expression. Fluorescence microscopy indicated that nisin localizes with spores within phagosomes of peritioneal macrophages in germinating conditions. These data demonstrate the effectiveness of nisin, as a model lantibiotic, for preventing spore outgrowth. It is speculated that nisin targeting of lipid II, resulting in membrane perturbations, may be effective at inhibiting the outgrowth of spores prepared from bacteria across a number of species.