Analytical solutions for protective filters based on soil-retention and permeability criteria with respect to the phenomenon of soil boiling

For the successful performance of a granular filter medium, existing design guidelines, which are based on the particle size distribution (PSD) characteristics of the base soil and filter medium, require two contradictory conditions to be satisfied, viz., soil retention and permeability. In spite of the wider applicability of these guidelines, it is well recognized that (i) they are applicable to a particular range of soils tested in the laboratory, (ii) the design procedures do not include performance-based selection criteria, and (iii) there are no means to establish the sensitivity of the important variables influencing performance. In the present work, analytical solutions are developed to obtain a factor of safety with respect to soil-retention and permeability criteria for a base soil - filter medium system subjected to a soil boiling condition. The proposed analytical solutions take into consideration relevant geotechnical properties such as void ratio, permeability, dry unit weight, effective friction angle, shape and size of soil particles, seepage discharge, and existing hydraulic gradient. The solution is validated through example applications and experimental results, and it is established that it can be used successfully in the selection as well as design of granular filters and can be applied to all types of base soils.

Nucleation dynamics and pool boiling characteristics of high pressure refrigerant using thermochromic liquid crystals

This paper reports an experimental investigation of oscillating temperature field beneath a single isolated nucleation site using a non-invasive TLC (thermochromic liquid crystal) based thermography technique. Empirical correlations are presented to demonstrate the influence of system pressure and wall heat flux on different ebullition characteristics in the nucleate pool boiling regime of refrigerant R-134a. TLC transient response and two-phase flow structure are captured using synchronized, high resolution imaging. It is observed that the area of influence of nucleation site exhibits a two-part distinct transient behavior during the bubble growth period and broadens to a maximum of 1.57 times the bubble diameter at the instant of bubble departure. This is accompanied by a sharp fall of 2.5 degrees C in the local excess temperature at the nucleation site, which results in momentary augmentation (similar to 40%) in the local heat transfer coefficient at the nucleation origin. The enhanced heat transfer rate observed during the bubble peel-off event is primarily due to transient micro-convection in the wake of the retreating bubble. Further, the results indicate that a slight increase in system pressure from 813.6 to 882.5 kPa has no considerable effect on either the wall superheat or the overall heat transfer coefficient and ebullition frequency. In addition, correlations have been obtained for bubble Reynolds number, Jackob number and the dimensionless bubble generation frequency in terms of modified boiling number.

Experimental Study on Convective Boiling Heat Transfer in Narrow-Gap Annulus Tubes

Since convective boiling or highly subcooled single-phase forced convection in micro-channels is an effective cooling mechanism with a wide range of applications, more experimental and theoretical studies are required to explain and verify the forced convection heat transfer phenomenon in narrow channels. In this experimental study, we model the convective boiling behavior of water with low latent heat substance Freon 113 (R-113), with the purpose of saving power consumption and visualizing experiments. Both heat transfer and pressure drop characteristics were measured in subcooled and saturated concentric narrow gap forced convection boiling. Data were obtained to qualitatively identify the effects of gap size, pressure, flow rate and wall superheat on boiling regimes and the transition between various regimes. Some significant differences from unconfined forced convection boiling were found,and also, the flow patterns in narrow vertical annulus tubes have been studied quantitatively.

Pool Boiling In Microgravity: Recent Results And Perspectives For The Project Depa-Sj10

Two research projects on pool boiling in microgravity have been conducted aboard the Chinese recoverable satellites. Ground-based experiments have also been performed both in normal gravity and in short-term microgravity in the Drop Tower Beijing. Steady boiling of R113 on thin platinum wires was studied with a temperature-controlled heating method, while quasi-steady boiling of FC-72 on a plane plate was investigated with an exponentially increasing heating voltage. In the first case, slight enhancement of heat transfer is observed in microgravity, while diminution is evident for high heat flux in the second one. Lateral motions of bubbles on the heaters are observed before their departure in microgravity. The surface oscillation of the merged bubbles due to lateral coalescence between adjacent bubbles drives it to detach from the heaters. The Marangoni effect on the bubble behavior is also discussed. The perspectives for a new project DEPA-SJ10, which has been planned to be flown aboard the Chinese recoverable satellite SJ-10 in the future, are also presented.

Bubble Dynamics In Nucleate Pool Boiling On Thin Wires In Microgravity

A temperature-controlled pool boiling (TCPB) device has been developed to study the bubble behavior and heat transfer in pool boiling phenomenon both in normal gravity and in microgravity. A thin platinum wire of 60 mu m in diameter and 30 mm in length is simultaneously used as heater and thermometer. The fluid is R113 at 0.1 MPa and subcooled by 26 degrees C nominally for all cases. Three modes of heat transfer, namely single-phase natural convection, nucleate boiling, and two-mode transition boiling, are observed in the experiment both in microgravity aboard the 22nd Chinese recoverable satellite and in normal gravity on the ground before and after the space flight. Dynamic behaviors of vapor bubbles observed in these experiments are reported and analyzed in the present paper. In the regime of fully developed nucleate boiling, the interface oscillation due to coalescence of adjacent tiny bubbles is the primary reason of the departure of bubbles in microgravity. On the contrary, in the discrete bubble regime, it's observed that there exist three critical bubble diameters in microgravity, dividing the whole range of the observed bubbles into four regimes. Firstly, tiny bubbles are continually forming and growing on the heating surface before departing slowly from the wire when their sizes exceed some value of the order of 10(-1) mm. The bigger bubbles with about several millimeters in diameter stay on the wire, oscillate along the wire, and coalesce with adjacent bubbles. The biggest bubble with diameter of the order of 10 mm, which was formed immediately after the onset of boiling, stays continuously

Subcooled Pool Boiling at Microgravity: Preliminary Ground-Based Experimental Results

A temperature-controlled pool boiling (TCPB) device was developed to perform pool boiling heat transfer studies at both normal gravity on Earth and microgravity in the drop tower Beijing and aboard a Chinese recovery satellite. Two platinum wires of 60 ?m in diameter were simultaneously used as heaters and thermometers. The lengths were 30 mm and 40 mm, respectively. The ends of wires were soldered with copper poles to provide low resistance paths for the electric current. The heater resistance, and thus the heater temperature, was kept constant by a feedback circuit similar to that used in constant-temperature hot-wire anemometry. The fluid was R113 at 0.1 Mpa and subcooled by 30 ?C nominally for all cases. The results of the experiments at normal gravity were presented. Four modes, namely single-phase convection, nucleate boiling, transition two-mode boiling, and film boiling were observed. A few data obtained from several preliminary experiments at microgravity in the drop tower Beijing were also presented. A slight increase of the heat flux was obtained.

Experimental Study on Subcooled Pool Boiling in Microgravity Utilizing

Pool Boiling in Microgravity: Recent Results and Perspectives for the Project DEPA-SJ10

Two research projects on pool boiling in microgravity have been conducted aboard the Chinese recoverable satellites. Ground-based experiments have also been performed both in normal gravity and in short-term microgravity in the Drop Tower Beijing. Steady boiling of R113 on thin platinum wires was studied with a temperature-controlled heating method, while quasi-steady boiling of FC-72 on a plane plate was investigated with an exponentially increasing heating voltage. In the first case, slight enhancement of heat transfer is observed in microgravity, while diminution is evident for high heat flux in the second one. Lateral motions of bubbles on the heaters are observed before their departure in microgravity. The surface oscillation of the merged bubbles due to lateral coalescence between adjacent bubbles drives it to detach from the heaters. The Marangoni effect on the bubble behavior is also discussed. The perspectives for a new project DEPA-SJ10, which has been planned to be flown aboard the Chinese recoverable satellite SJ-10 in the future, are also presented.

Lateral motion and departure of vapor bubbles in nucleate pool boiling on thin wires in microgravity

A space experiment on bubble behavior and heat transfer in subcooled pool boiling phenomenon has been performed utilizing the temperature-controlled pool boiling (TCPB) device both in normal gravity in the laboratory and in microgravity aboard the 22(nd) Chinese recoverable satellite. The fluid is R113 at 0.1 MPa and subcooled by 26 degrees C nominally. A thin platinum wire of 60 mu m in diameter and 30mm in length is simultaneously used as heater and thermometer. Only the lateral motion and the departure of discrete vapor bubbles in nucleate pool boiling are reported and analyzed in the present paper. A scale analysis on the Marangoni convection surrounding a bubble in the process of subcooled nucleate pool boiling leads to formulas of the characteristic velocity of the lateral motion and its observability. The predictions consist with the experimental observations. Considering the Marangoni effect, a new qualitative model is proposed to reveal the mechanism underlying the bubble departure processes and a quantitative agreement can also be acquired.

Bubble Behavior and Heat Transfer in Quasi-Steady Pool Boiling in Microgravity

Pool boiling of degassed FC-72 on a plane plate heater has been studied experimentally in microgravity. A quasi-steady heating method is adopted, in which the heating voltage is controlled to increase exponentially with time. Compared with terrestrial experiments, bubble behaviors are very different, and have direct effect on heat transfer. Small, primary bubbles attached on the surface seem to be able to suppress the activation of the cavities in the neighborhoods, resulting in a slow increase of the wall temperature with the heat flux. For the high subcooling, the coalesced bubble has a smooth surface and a small size. It is difficult to cover the whole heater surface, resulting in a special region of gradual transitional boiling in which nucleate boiling and local dry area can co-exist. No turning point corresponding to the transition from nucleate boiling to film boiling can be observed. On the contrary, the surface oscillation of the coalesced bubble at low subcooling may cause more activated nucleate sites, and then the surface temperature may keep constant or even fall down with the increasing heat flux. Furthermore, an abrupt transition to film boiling can also be observed. It is shown that heat transfer coefficient and CHF increase with the subcooling or pressure in microgravity, as observed in normal gravity.

Boiling heat transfer enhancement by using micro-pin-finned surface for electronics cooling

For efficiently cooling electronic components with high heat flux, experiments were conducted to study the flow boiling heat transfer performance of FC-72 over square silicon chips with the dimensions of 10 × 10 × 0.5 mm3. Four kinds of micro-pin-fins with the dimensions of 30 × 60, 30 × 120, 50 × 60, 50 × 120 μm2 (thickness, t × height, h) were fabricated on the chip surfaces by the dry etching technique for enhancing boiling heat transfer. A smooth surface was also tested for comparison. The experiments were made at three different fluid velocities (0.5, 1 and 2 m/s) and three different liquid subcoolings (15, 25 and 35 K). The results were compared with the previous published data of pool boiling. All micro-pin-fined surfaces show a considerable heat transfer enhancement compared with a smooth surface. Flow boiling can remarkably decrease wall superheat compared with pool boiling. At the velocities lower than 1 m/s, the micro-pin-finned surfaces show a sharp increase in heat flux with increasing wall superheat. For all surfaces, the maximum allowable heat flux, qmax, for the normal operation of LSI chips increases with fluid velocity and subcooling. For all micro-pin-finned surfaces, the wall temperature at the critical heat flux (CHF) is less than the upper limit for the reliable operation of LSI chips, 85◦C. The largest value of qmax can reach nearly 148 W/cm2 for micro-pin-finned chips with the fin height of 120 μm at the fluid velocity of 2 m/s and the liquid subcooling of 35 K. The perspectives for the boiling heat transfer experiment of the prospective micro-pin-finned sur- faces, which has been planned to be made in the Drop Tower Beijing/NMLC in the future, are also presented.

Subcooled pool boiling on thin wire in microgravity

A new set of experimental data of subcooled pool boiling on a thin wire in rnicrogravity aboard the 22nd Chinese recoverable satellite is reported in the present paper. The temperature-control led heating method is used. The results of the experiments in normal gravity before and after the flight experiment are also presented, and compared with those in microgravity. The working fluid is degassed R113 at 0.1 MPa and subcooled by 26 degrees C nominally. A thin platinum wire of 60 mu m in diameter and 30 mm in length is simultaneously used as heater and thermometer. It is found that the heat transfer of nucleate pool boiling is slightly enhanced in microgravity comparing with those in normal gravity. It is also found that the correlation of Lienhard and Dhir can predict the CHF with good agreement, although the range of the dimensionless radius is extended by three or more decades above the originally set limit. Three critical bubble diameters are observed in microgravity, which divide the observed vapor bubbles into four regimes with different sizes. Considering the Marangoni effect, a qualitative model is proposed to reveal the mechanism underlying the bubble departure processes, and a quantitative agreement can also be acquired.

Dynamics of discrete bubble in nucleate pool boiling on thin wires in microgravity

A space experiment on bubble behavior and heat transfer in subcooled pool boiling phenomenon has been performed utilizing the temperature-controlled pool boiling (TCPB) device both in normal gravity in the laboratory and in microgravity aboard the 22(nd) Chinese recoverable satellite. The fluid is degassed R113 at 0.1 MPa and subcooled by 26 degrees C nominally. A thin platinum wire of 60 mu m in diameter and 30 mm in length is simultaneously used as heater and thermometer. Only the dynamics of the vapor bubbles, particularly the lateral motion and the departure of discrete vapor bubbles in nucleate pool boiling are reported and analyzed in the present paper. It's found that these distinct behaviors can be explained by the Marangoni convection in the liquid surrounding vapor bubbles. The origin of the Marangoni effect is also discussed.