Energy efficiency and greenhouse gas emissions of different supply chains: a comparison of French, UK and Belgian cases

Freight transportation system is critical to economic activity but it carries significant environmental costs, notably GHG emissions and climate change : energy use and corresponding CO2 emissions is increasing faster in freight transport than in other sectors and this increase is primarily the result of increased trade. This paper compares the transport activities, associated energy consumption and CO2 emissions of different supply chains for a range of products in three countries: Belgium, France and United Kingdom. Among the products considered are furniture and ‘fruits & vegetables’. For each of these products, different supply chains, involving more or less transport activity and associated energy consumption are analysed in each country. The comparison highlights some of the main factors that influence GHG emissions for different supply chains and illustrates how they vary according to product and country of final distribution. In more detail, the paper addresses the main differences between the supply chains of these products namely, the origin of their sourcing, the logistical organisation between production and retail and different types of retail outlet. The origin of the sourcing impact is mainly related to distance. The impact of the logistical organisation between raw material and retail on GHG emissions is linked to the mode and vehicle choice and to the load factor. As for retail, the consumer trip emissions, between his home and the retail outlet, are also an important part of the whole supply chain emissions. It is worthwhile to notice that our goal in this project is to consider the whole supply chain, from production to consumption. Therefore a particular focus is put on the mobility behaviours of consumers purchasing the studied products during their shopping and dropping back home activities related to these products. Especially a web based survey has been conducted and the gathered results offer an opportunity for drawing a more detailed picture of the associated CO2 emissions. This paper uses the results of an ongoing research on supply chain energy efficiency, funded by ADEME (the French Energy Agency) through the French program on transport research (PREDIT). This research is based on a comprehensive review of the various approaches to quantifying the environmental impacts of supply chains together with data collection from a range of organisations including manufacturers, retailers and transport companies. We will first present the developed methodologies, then the results corresponding to each studied product will be described. A discussion of the potential application of the research approach to the wider debate about the environmental impact of freight transport and the scope for GHG emissions reduction targets to be achieved will be included.

Energy efficiency and greenhouse gas emissions of different supply chains: a comparison of French, UK and Belgian cases

Freight transportation system is critical to economic activity but it carries significant environmental costs, notably GHG emissions and climate change : energy use and corresponding CO2 emissions is increasing faster in freight transport than in other sectors and this increase is primarily the result of increased trade. This paper compares the transport activities, associated energy consumption and CO2 emissions of different supply chains for a range of products in three countries: Belgium, France and United Kingdom. Among the products considered are furniture and fruits & vegetables. For each of these products, different supply chains, involving more or less transport activity and associated energy consumption are analysed in each country. The comparison highlights some of the main factors that influence GHG emissions for different supply chains and illustrates how they vary according to product and country of final distribution. In more detail, the paper addresses the main differences between the supply chains of these products namely, the origin of their sourcing, the logistical organisation between production and retail and different types of retail outlet. The origin of the sourcing impact is mainly related to distance. The impact of the logistical organisation between raw material and retail on GHG emissions is linked to the mode and vehicle choice and to the load factor. As for retail, the consumer trip emissions, between his home and the retail outlet, are also an important part of the whole supply chain emissions. It is worthwhile to notice that our goal in this project is to consider the whole supply chain, from production to consumption. Therefore a particular focus is put on the mobility behaviours of consumers purchasing the studied products during their shopping and dropping back home activities related to these products. Especially a web based survey has been conducted and the gathered results offer an opportunity for drawing a more detailed picture of the associated CO2 emissions. This paper uses the results of an ongoing research on supply chain energy efficiency, funded by ADEME (the French Energy Agency) through the French program on transport research (PREDIT). This research is based on a comprehensive review of the various approaches to quantifying the environmental impacts of supply chains together with data collection from a range of organisations including manufacturers, retailers and transport companies. We will first present the developed methodologies, then the results corresponding to each studied product will be described. A discussion of the potential application of the research approach to the wider debate about the environmental impact of freight transport and the scope for GHG emissions reduction targets to be achieved will be included.

Improving EU biofuels policy? Greenhouse gas emissions, policy efficiency, and WTO compatibility

Both the EU’s Renewable Energy Directive (RED) and Article 7a of its Fuel Quality Directive (FQD) seek to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from transport fuels. The RED mandates a 10% share of renewable energy in transport fuels by 2020, whilst the FQD requires a 6% reduction in GHG emissions (from a 2010 base) by the same date. In practice, it will mainly be biofuels that economic operators will use to meet these requirements, but the different approaches can lead to either the RED, or the FQD, acting as the binding constraint. A common set of environmental sustainability criteria apply to biofuels under both the RED and the FQD. In particular, biofuels have to demonstrate a 35% (later increasing to 50/60%) saving in life-cycle GHG emissions. This could be problematic in the World Trade Organization (WTO), as a non-compliant biofuel with a 34% emissions saving would probably be judged to be ‘like’ a compliant biofuel. A more economically rational way to reduce GHG emissions, and one that might attract greater public support, would be for the RED to reward emission reductions along the lines of the FQD. Moreover, this modification would probably make the provisions more acceptable in the WTO, as there would be a clearer link between policy measures and the objective of reductions in GHG emissions; and the combination of the revised RED and the FQD would lessen the commercial incentive to import biofuels with modest GHG emission savings, and thus reduce the risk of trade tension.

Time valued life cycle greenhouse gas emissions from buildings

The UK has adopted legally binding carbon reduction targets of 34% by 2020 and 80% by 2050 (measured against the 1990 baseline). Buildings are estimated to be responsible for more than 50% of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the UK. These consist of both operational, produced during use, and embodied, produced during manufacture of materials and components, and during construction, refurbishments and demolition. A brief assessment suggests that it is unlikely that UK emission reduction targets can be met without substantial reductions in both Oc and Ec. Oc occurs over the lifetime of a building whereas the bulk of Ec occurs at the start of a building’s life. A time value for emissions could influence the decision making process when it comes to comparing mitigation measures which have benefits that occur at different times. An example might be the choice between building construction using low Ec construction materials versus building construction using high Ec construction materials but with lower Oc, although the use of high Ec materials does not necessarily imply a lower Oc. Particular time related issues examined here are: the urgency of the need to achieve large emissions reductions during the next 10 to 20 years; the earlier effective action is taken, the less costly it will be; future reduction in carbon intensity of energy supply; the carbon cycle and relationship between the release of GHG’s and their subsequent concentrations in the atmosphere. An equation is proposed, which weights emissions according to when they occur during the building life cycle, and which effectively increases Ec as a proportion of the total, suggesting that reducing Ec is likely to be more beneficial, in terms of climate change, for most new buildings. Thus, giving higher priority to Ec reductions is likely to result in a bigger positive impact on climate change and mitigation costs.

Greenhouse gas emission scenario modeling for cities using the PURGE model

Cities globally are in the midst of taking action to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. After the vital step of emissions quantification, strategies must be developed to detail how emissions reductions targets will be achieved. The Pathways to Urban Reductions in Greenhouse Gas Emissions (PURGE) model allows the estimation of emissions from four pertinent urban sectors: electricity generation, buildings, private transportation, and waste. Additionally, the carbon storage from urban and regional forests is modeled. An emissions scenario is examined for a case study of the greater Toronto, Ontario, Canada, area using data on current technology stocks and government projections for stock change. The scenario presented suggests that even with some aggressive targets for technological adoption (especially in the transportation sector), it will be difficult to achieve the less ambitious 2050 emissions reduction goals of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. This is largely attributable to the long life of the building stock and limitations of current retrofit practices. Additionally, demand reduction (through transportation mode shifting and building occupant behavior) will be an important component of future emissions cuts.

Greenhouse gas emissions from waste management—assessment of quantification methods

Of the many sources of urban greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, solid waste is the only one for which management decisions are undertaken primarily by municipal governments themselves and is hence often the largest component of cities’ corporate inventories. It is essential that decision-makers select an appropriate quantification methodology and have an appreciation of methodological strengths and shortcomings. This work compares four different waste emissions quantification methods, including Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 1996 guidelines, IPCC 2006 guidelines, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Waste Reduction Model (WARM), and the Federation of Canadian Municipalities- Partners for Climate Protection (FCM-PCP) quantification tool. Waste disposal data for the greater Toronto area (GTA) in 2005 are used for all methodologies; treatment options (including landfill, incineration, compost, and anaerobic digestion) are examined where available in methodologies. Landfill was shown to be the greatest source of GHG emissions, contributing more than three-quarters of total emissions associated with waste management. Results from the different landfill gas (LFG) quantification approaches ranged from an emissions source of 557 kt carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2e) (FCM-PCP) to a carbon sink of −53 kt CO2e (EPA WARM). Similar values were obtained between IPCC approaches. The IPCC 2006 method was found to be more appropriate for inventorying applications because it uses a waste-in-place (WIP) approach, rather than a methane commitment (MC) approach, despite perceived onerous data requirements for WIP. MC approaches were found to be useful from a planning standpoint; however, uncertainty associated with their projections of future parameter values limits their applicability for GHG inventorying. MC and WIP methods provided similar results in this case study; however, this is case specific because of similarity in assumptions of present and future landfill parameters and quantities of annual waste deposited in recent years being relatively consistent.

Greenhouse gas balance due to the conversion of sugarcane areas from burned to green harvest in Brazil

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Greenhouse gas emission associated with sugar production in southern Brazil

Background: Since sugarcane areas have increased rapidly in Brazil, the contribution of the sugarcane production, and, especially, of the sugarcane harvest system to the greenhouse gas emissions of the country is an issue of national concern. Here we analyze some data characterizing various activities of two sugarcane mills during the harvest period of 2006-2007 and quantify the carbon footprint of sugar production.Results: According to our calculations, 241 kg of carbon dioxide equivalent were released to the atmosphere per a ton of sugar produced (2406 kg of carbon dioxide equivalent per a hectare of the cropped area, and 26.5 kg of carbon dioxide equivalent per a ton of sugarcane processed). The major part of the total emission (44%) resulted from residues burning; about 20% resulted from the use of synthetic fertilizers, and about 18% from fossil fuel combustion.Conclusions: The results of this study suggest that the most important reduction in greenhouse gas emissions from sugarcane areas could be achieved by switching to a green harvest system, that is, to harvesting without burning. © 2010 de Figueiredo et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.

Flujos de gases de efecto invernadero en suelos forestales y agroforestales del centro de la Península Ibérica=Greenhouse gas flows in forest and agroforestry soils in the center of the Iberian Peninsula

Debido a la complejidad de los procesos que controlan el intercambio de gases de carbono (C) y nitrógeno (N) entre el suelo y la atmósfera, en los sistemas forestales y agroforestales, son comprensibles las incógnitas existentes respecto a la estimación de los flujos de los gases de efecto invernadero (GEI) y la capacidad como reservorios de carbono de los suelos, bajo diferentes formas de uso y regímenes de alteración a escala regional y global. Esta escasez de información justifica la necesidad de caracterizar la dinámica de intercambio de GEI en los ecosistemas Mediterráneos, en especial en el contexto actual de cambio climático, y el incremento asociado de temperatura y periodos de sequía, alteración de los patrones de precipitación, y el riesgo de incendios forestales; cuyas consecuencias afectarán tanto a los compartimentos de C y de N del suelo como a la capacidad de secuestro de C de estos ecosistemas. Dentro de este contexto se enmarca la presente tesis doctoral cuyo objetivo ha sido cuantificar y caracterizar los flujos de dióxido de carbono (CO2), de oxido nitroso (N2O) y de metano (CH4), junto con los stocks de C y N, en suelos forestales de Quercus ilex, Quercus pyrenaica y Pinus sylvestris afectados por incendios forestales; así como el estudiar el efecto de la gestión y la cubierta arbórea en la respiración del suelo y los stocks de C y N en una dehesa situada en el centro de la Península Ibérica. De manera que los flujos de CO2, N2O y CH4; y los parámetros físico-químicos y biológicos del suelo fueron estudiados en los diferentes tratamientos y ecosistemas a lo largo del trabajo que se presenta. Los resultados obtenidos muestran la existencia de variaciones temporales y espaciales de la respiración del suelo dentro de una escala geográfica pequeña, controladas principalmente por la temperatura y la humedad del suelo; y por los contenidos de C y N del suelo en un bosque de Pinus sylvestris en la vertiente norte de la Sierra de Guadarrama , en España. El análisis de los efectos de los incendios forestales a largo plazo (6-8 años) revela que las pérdidas anuales de C a través de la respiración del suelo en las zonas quemadas de Quercus ilex, Quercus pyrenaica y Pinus sylvestris fueron 450 gCm-2yr-1, 790 gCm-2yr-1 y 1220 gCm-2yr-1, respectivamente; lo que representa una reducción del 43%, 22% y 11% en comparación con las zonas no quemadas de dichas especies, debido a la destrucción de la masa arbórea. El efecto del fuego también alteró los flujos N2O y CH4 del suelo, de una forma diferente en los distintos ecosistemas y estacionalidades estudiadas. De tal modo, que los suelos quemados mostraron una mayor oxidación del CH4 en las masas de Q. ilex, y una menor oxidación en las de P. sylvestris; además de una disminución de los flujos de N2O en Q. pyrenaica. Los incendios también afectaron los parámetros microclimáticos de los suelos forestales, observándose un incremento de la temperatura del suelo y una disminución de la humedad en los emplazamientos quemados que en los no quemados. Los cationes intercambiables, el pH, el cociente C/N, el contenido en raicillas y la biomasa microbiana también disminuyeron en las zonas quemadas. Aunque el C orgánico del suelo no se alteró de manera significativa, si lo hizo la calidad de la materia orgánica, disminuyendo el carbono lábil y aumentando las formas recalcitrantes lo que se tradujo en menor sensibilidad de la respiración del suelo a la temperatura (valores de Q10) en las zonas quemadas. Los resultados del estudio realizado en la Dehesa muestran que las actividades silvopastorales estudiadas afectaron levemente y de forma no constante a la respiración del suelo y las condiciones microclimáticas del suelo. Se observó una reducción 12% de la respiración del suelo por efecto del pastoreo no intensivo. Sin embargo, se observaron incrementos de 3Mg/ha en los stocks de C y de 0.3 Mg/ha en los stocks de N en los suelos pastoreados en comparación con los no pastoreados. Aunque, no se observó un claro efecto de la labranza sobre la respiración del suelo en nuestro experimento, sin embargo si se observó una disminución de 3.5 Mg/ha en las reservas de C y de 0.3 Mg/ ha en las de N en los suelos labrados comparados con los no labrados. La copa del arbolado influyó de forma positiva tanto en la respiración del suelo, como en los stocks de C y N de los suelos. La humedad del suelo jugó un papel relevante en la sensibilidad de la respiración a la temperatura del suelo. Nuestros resultados ponen de manifiesto la sensibilidad de la respiración del suelo a cambios en la humedad y los parámetros edáficos, y sugieren que la aplicación de modelos estándar para estimar la respiración del suelo en áreas geográficas pequeñas puede no ser adecuada a menos que otros factores sean considerados en combinación con la temperatura del suelo. Además, las diferentes respuestas de los flujos de gases de efecto invernadero a los cambios, años después de la ocurrencia de incendios forestales, destaca la necesidad de incluir estos cambios en las futuras investigaciones de la dinámica del carbono en los ecosistemas mediterráneos. Por otra parte, las respuestas divergentes en los valores de respiración del suelo y en los contenidos de C y N del suelo observados en la dehesa, además de la contribución de la copa de los árboles en los nutrientes del suelo ilustran la importancia de mantener la gestión tradicional aplicada en beneficio de la capacidad de almacenar C en la dehesa estudiada. La información obtenida en este trabajo pretende contribuir a la mejora del conocimiento de la dinámica y el balance de C en los sistemas mediterráneos, además de ayudar a predecir el impacto del cambio climático en el intercambio de C entre los ecosistemas forestales y agroforestales y la atmósfera. ABSTRACT Due to the complexity of the processes that control the exchange of carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) gasses between soils and the atmosphere in forest and agroforestry ecosystems, understandable uncertainties exist as regards the estimation of greenhouse gas (GHG) fluxes and the soil sink capacity at regional and global scale under different forms of land use and disturbance regimes. These uncertainties justify the need to characterize the exchange dynamics of GHG between the atmosphere and soils in Mediterranean terrestrial ecosystems, particularly in the current context of climate change and the associated increase in temperature, drought periods, heavy rainfall events, and increased risk of wildfires, which affect not only the C and N pools but also the soil C sink capacity of these ecosystems. Within this context, the aims of the present thesis were, firstly, to quantify and characterize the fluxes of carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O) and methane (CH4) as well as the C and N stocks in Quercus ilex, Quercus pyrenaica and Pinus sylvestris stands affected by wildfires, and secondly, to study the effects of Quercus ilex canopy and management on both soil respiration and C and N pools in dehesa systems in the center of Iberian Peninsula. Soil CO2, N2O and CH4 fluxes, and soil physical-chemical and biological parameters were studied under the different treatments and ecosystems considered in this study. The results showed seasonal and spatial variations in soil respiration within small geographic areas, mainly controlled by soil temperature and moisture in addition to soil carbon and nitrogen stocks in mixed pine–oak forest ecosystems on the north facing slopes of the Sierra de Guadarrama in Spain. The analysis of long term effects of wildfires (6–8 years) revealed that annual carbon losses through soil respiration from burned sites in Quercus ilex, Quercus pyrenaica and Pinus sylvestris stands were 450 gCm-2yr-1, 790 gCm-2yr-1 and 1220 gCm-2yr-1, respectively; with burned sites emitting 43%, 22% and 11% less in burned as opposed to non-burned sites due the loss of trees. Fire may alter both N2O and CH4 fluxes although the magnitude of such variation depends on the site, soil characteristics and seasonal climatic conditions. The burned sites showed higher CH4 oxidation in Q.ilex stands, and lower oxidation rates in P. sylvestris stands. A reduction in N2O fluxes in Q. pyrenaica stands was detected at burned sites along with changes in soil microclimate; higher soil temperature and lower soil moisture content. Exchangeable cations, the C/N ratio, pH, fine root and microbial biomass were also found to decrease at burned sites. Although the soil organic carbon was not significantly altered, the quality of the organic matter changed, displaying a decrease in labile carbon and a relative increase in refractory forms, leading to lower sensitivity of soil respiration to temperature (Q10 values) at burned sites. The results from the dehesa study show that light grazing and superficial tilling practices used in the studied dehesa system in Spain had a slight but non-consistent impact on soil respiration and soil microclimate over the study period. The reduction in soil respiration in the dehesa system due to the effects of grazing was around 12 %. However, increments of 3Mg/ha in C stocks and 0.3 Mg/ha in N stocks in grazed soils were observed. Although no clear effect of tilling on soil respiration was found, a decrease of 3.5 Mg/ha in C stocks and 0.3 Mg/ha in N stocks was detected for tilled soils. The presence of a tree canopy induced increases in soil respiration, soil C and N stocks, while soil moisture was found to play an important role in soil respiration temperature response. Our results suggest that the use of standard models to estimate soil respiration in small geographical areas may not be adequate unless other factors are considered in addition to soil temperature. Furthermore, the different responses of GHG flux to climatic shifts, many years after the occurrence of wildfire, highlight the need to include these shifts in C dynamics in future research undertaken in Mediterranean ecosystems. Furthermore, divergent responses in soil respiration and soil C and N stocks to grazing or tilling practices in Dehesa systems, and the influence of tree canopy on soil respiration and soil nutrient content, illustrate the importance of maintaining beneficial management practices. Moreover, the carbon sequestration capacity of the Dehesa system studied may be enhanced through improvements in the management applied. It is hoped that the information obtained through this research will contribute towards improving our understanding of the dynamics and balance of C in Mediterranean systems, and help predict the impact of climate change on the exchange of C between forest and agroforestry ecosystems and the atmosphere.

On strategies for reducing greenhouse gas emissions

Equity is of fundamental concern in the quest for international cooperation to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations by the reduction of emissions. By modeling the carbon cycle, we estimate the global CO2 emissions that would be required to stabilize the atmospheric concentration of CO2 at levels ranging from 450 to 1,000 ppm. These are compared, on both an absolute and a per-capita basis, to scenarios for emissions from the developed and developing worlds generated by socio-economic models under the assumption that actions to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions are not taken. Need and equity have provided strong arguments for developing countries to request that the developed world takes the lead in controlling its emissions, while permitting the developing countries in the meantime to use primarily fossil fuels for their development. Even with major and early control of CO2 emissions by the developed world, limiting concentration to 450 ppm implies that the developing world also would need to control its emissions within decades, given that we expect developing world emissions would otherwise double over this time. Scenarios leading to CO2 concentrations of 550 ppm exhibit a reduction of the developed world's per-capita emission by about 50% over the next 50 years. Even for the higher stabilization levels considered, the developing world would not be able to use fossil fuels for their development in the manner that the developed world has used them.

Climate Clever Beef: options to improve business performance and reduce greenhouse gas emissions in northern Australia

The Rangeland Journal – Climate Clever Beef special issue examines options for the beef industry in northern Australia to contribute to the reduction in global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and to engage in the carbon economy. Relative to its gross value (A$5 billion), the northern beef industry is responsible for a sizable proportion of national reportable GHG emissions (8–10%) through enteric methane, savanna burning, vegetation clearing and land degradation. The industry occupies large areas of land and has the potential to impact the carbon cycle by sequestering carbon or reducing carbon loss. Furthermore, much of the industry is currently not achieving its productivity potential, which suggests that there are opportunities to improve the emissions intensity of beef production. Improving the industry’s GHG emissions performance is important for its environmental reputation and may benefit individual businesses through improved production efficiency and revenue from the carbon economy. The Climate Clever Beef initiative collaborated with beef businesses in six regions across northern Australia to better understand the links between GHG emissions and carbon stocks, land condition, herd productivity and profitability. The current performance of businesses was measured and alternate management options were identified and evaluated. Opportunities to participate in the carbon economy through the Australian Government’s Emissions Reduction Fund (ERF) were also assessed. The initiative achieved significant producer engagement and collaboration resulting in practice change by 78 people from 35 businesses, managing more than 1 272 000 ha and 132 000 cattle. Carbon farming opportunities were identified that could improve both business performance and emissions intensity. However, these opportunities were not without significant risks, trade-offs and limitations particularly in relation to business scale, and uncertainty in carbon price and the response of soil and vegetation carbon sequestration to management. This paper discusses opportunities for reducing emissions, improving emission intensity and carbon sequestration, and outlines the approach taken to achieve beef business engagement and practice change. The paper concludes with some considerations for policy makers.

Greenhouse Gas Emissions Calculator for Grain and Biofuel Farming Systems

Greenhouse gas markets, where invisible gases are traded, must seem like black boxes to most people. Farmers can make money on these markets, such as the Chicago Climate Exchange, by installing methane capture technologies in animal-based systems, no-till farming, establishing grasslands, and planting trees.

Greenhouse Gas Fluxes in Tropical and Temperae Agriculture: The Need for a Full-Cost Accounting of Global Warming Potentials

Agriculture's contribution to radiative forcing is principally through its historical release of carbon in soil and vegetation to the atmosphere and through its contemporary release of nitrous oxide (N2O) and methane (CHM4). The sequestration of soil carbon in soils now depleted in soil organic matter is a well-known strategy for mitigating the buildup of CO2 in the atmosphere. Less well-recognized are other mitigation potentials. A full-cost accounting of the effects of agriculture on greenhouse gas emissions is necessary to quantify the relative importance of all mitigation options. Such an analysis shows nitrogen fertilizer, agricultural liming, fuel use, N2O emissions, and CH4 fluxes to have additional significant potential for mitigation. By evaluating all sources in terms of their global warming potential it becomes possible to directly evaluate greenhouse policy options for agriculture. A comparison of temperate and tropical systems illustrates some of these options.

A study of environmental and management drivers of non-co2 greenhouse gas emissions in Australian agro-ecosystems

Australian climate, soils and agricultural management practices are significantly different from those of the northern hemisphere nations. Consequently, experimental data on greenhouse gas production from European and North American agricultural soils and its interpretation are unlikely to be directly applicable to Australian systems.