Protecting degraded rainforests: enhancement of forest carbon stocks under REDD+

The likely Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation (REDD+) mechanism includes strategies for the enhancement of forest carbon stocks. Recent concerns have been expressed that such enhancement, or restoration, of forest carbon could be counterproductive to biodiversity conservation, because forests are managed as “carbon farms” with the application of intensive silvicultural management that could homogenize diverse degraded rainforests. Restoration increases regeneration rates in degraded forest compared to naturally regenerating forest, and thus could yield significant financial returns for carbon sequestered. Here, we argue that such forest restoration projects are, in fact, likely to provide a number of benefits to biodiversity conservation including the retention of biodiversity, the prevention of forest conversion to agriculture, and employment opportunities for poor local communities. As with other forms of forest-based carbon offsets, there are possible moral hazard and leakage problems with restoration. However, due to the multiple benefits, we urge that enhancement of forest carbon stocks be detailed as a major component in the future negotiations of REDD+.

Assessing the above-ground biomass of a complex tropical rainforest using a canopy crane

Current estimates of the total biomass in tropical rainforests vary considerably; this is due in large part to the different approaches that are used to calculate biomass. In this study we have used a canopy crane to measure the tree architectures in a 1 ha plot of complex mesophyll vine forest at Cape Tribulation, Australia. Methods were developed to measure and calculate the crown and stem biomass of six major species of tree and palm (Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae), Cleistanthus myrianthus (Euphorbiaceae), Endiandra microneura (Lauraceae), Myristica insipida (Myristicaceae), Acmena graveolens (Myrtaceae), Normanbya normanbyi (Arecaceae)) using the unique access provided by the crane. This has allowed the first non-destructive biomass estimate to be carried out for a forest of this type. Allometric equations which relate tree biomass to the measured variable 'diameter at breast height' were developed for the six species, and a general equation was also developed for trees on the plot. The general equation was similar in form to equations developed for tropical rainforests in Brazil and New Guinea. The species equations were applied at the level of families, the generalized equation was applied to the remaining species which allowed the biomass of a total of 680 trees to be calculated. This has provided a current estimate of 270 t ha-1 above-ground biomass at the Australian Canopy Crane site; a value comparable to lowland rainforests in Panama and French Guiana. Using the same tree database seven alternative allometric equations (literature equations for tropical rainforests) were used to calculate the site biomass, the range was large (252-446 t ha-1) with only three equations providing estimates within 34 t ha-1 (12.5%) of the site value. Our use of multiple species-specific allometric equations has provided a site estimate only slightly larger (1%) than that obtained using allometric equations developed specifically for tropical wet rainforests. We have demonstrated that it is possible to non-destructively measure the biomass in a complex forest using an on-site canopy crane. In conjunction the development of crown maps and a detailed tree architecture database allows changes in forest structure to be followed quantitatively. © 2007 Ecological Society of Australia.

Estimativa de parâmetros estruturais de áreas de produção de eucalipto através de imagens de satélite na região de Botucatu /SP

Pós-graduação em Agronomia (Energia na Agricultura) - FCA

Estoque de biomassa e carbono florestal em unidades de paisagem na Amazônia: uma análise a partir da abordagem metodológica ecologia da paisagem

O presente trabalho tem por objetivo central demonstrar a variabilidade existente na floresta no que tange aos estoques de biomassa e carbono florestal acima do solo, a partir da identificação e caracterização, com base em técnicas de sensoriamento remoto, de unidades de paisagem em uma área situada no município de Belterra, região oeste do Estado do Pará, a partir da matriz teórico-conceitual da abordagem Ecologia da Paisagem. Para o alcance de tal proposição, a metodologia empregada partiu da revisão da literatura sobre o tema, aquisição de dados cartográficos e orbitais, uso de técnicas de sensoriamento remoto, coleta de dados em campo, tratamento e análise estatística. O trabalho está dividido em quatro capítulos, seguidos pelas considerações gerais da obra. Partindo da matriz teórico-metodológica da Ecologia da Paisagem, analisa-se a dinâmica socioambiental do município de Belterra, que atualmente experimenta a expansão das atividades agrícolas, com destaque para a agricultura mecanizada da soja. A partir da análise multitemporal de imagens Landsat do município pôde-se avaliar a distribuição da cobertura florestal existente no mesmo, bem como o padrão espacial de distribuição das principais unidades de paisagem identificadas. Considerando esse recorte, realizou-se a coleta de dados em campo via inventário florestal em quatro tipologias florestais (floresta de alto platô, floresta de baixo platô, vegetação secundária e tensão ecológica) para obtenção de parâmetros morfométricos da vegetação e posterior quantificação dos estoques de biomassa e carbono contidos em cada unidade, bem como observar o comportamento estrutural da floresta nas mesmas. A adoção da paisagem como escala espacial de análise mostrou-se bastante satisfatória na quantificação dos estoques de biomassa e carbono florestal ao permitir considerar a influência da dinâmica socioeconômica na redução desses estoques. Além disso, possibilitou constatar que o reconhecimento da heterogeneidade da cobertura florestal é um elemento fundamental para a obtenção de estimativas de carbono de acordo com as características estruturais da vegetação, que varia de acordo com a topografia do terreno, com as espécies existentes e com as características geográficas, o que envolve a tipologia climática, as características geomorfológicas, pedológicas e geológicas da área.

STRUCTURAL CHARACTERIZATION OF CANOPIES OF Eucalyptus spp. USING RADIOMETRIC DATA FROM TM/Landsat 5

Empirical approaches and, more recently, physical approaches, have grounded the establishment of logical connections between radiometric variables derived from remote data and biophysical variables derived from vegetation cover. This study was aimed at evaluating correlations of dendrometric and density data from canopies of Eucalyptus spp., as collected in Capao Bonito forest unit, with radiometric data from imagery acquired by the TM/Landsat-5 sensor on two orbital passages over the study site (dates close to field data collection). Results indicate that stronger correlations were identified between crown dimensions and canopy height with near-infrared spectral band data (rho(s)4), irrespective of the satellite passage date. Estimates of spatial distribution of dendrometric data and canopy density (D) using spectral characterization were consistent with the spatial distribution of tree ages during the study period. Statistical tests were applied to evaluate performance disparities of empirical models depending on which date data were acquired. Results indicated a significant difference between models based on distinct data acquisition dates.

Hydro-physical characterization of soils under tropical semi-deciduous forest

The study of the hydro-physical behavior in soils using toposequences is of great importance for better understanding the soil, water and vegetation relationships. This study aims to assess the hydro-physical and morphological characterization of soil from a toposequence in Galia, state of São Paulo, Brazil). The plot covers an area of 10.24 ha (320 × 320 m), located in a semi-deciduous seasonal forest. Based on ultra-detailed soil and topographic maps of the area, a representative transect from the soil in the plot was chosen. Five profiles were opened for the morphological description of the soil horizons, and hydro-physical and micromorphological analyses were performed to characterize the soil. Arenic Haplustult, Arenic Haplustalf and Aquertic Haplustalf were the soil types observed in the plot. The superficial horizons had lower density and greater hydraulic conductivity, porosity and water retention in lower tensions than the deeper horizons. In the sub-superficial horizons, greater water retention at higher tensions and lower hydraulic conductivity were observed, due to structure type and greater clay content. The differences observed in the water retention curves between the sandy E and the clay B horizons were mainly due to the size distribution, shape and type of soil pores.

BIOMASS FUEL-BRIQUETTES AND IMPROVED STOVES IN DINSHO, ETHIOPIA

This report is a study of the development and implementation of a biomass fuel briquette and improved stove project in the highlands of Ethiopia. The primary goal of the project was to determine if the introduction of an improved stove would affect the acceptability of fuel briquettes. The secondary goal was to establish briquette and improved stove manufacturing associations in Dinsho and Rira towns. Two problems encountered during the project were cultural differences in material valuation, and difficulty working with local administrative frameworks and multi-organization communication difficulties. Both briquettes and improved stoves received positive feedback from respondents. Survey data indicated that a price of 0.75 Ethiopian birr per briquette would make them a competitive fuel source against fuelwood. Recommendations for feedstock sourcing and supply, capital investment, labor reduction, estimating cost effectiveness, appropriate technology design, development work setbacks, and valuation paradigms for fuel briquette, improved stove, and development work projects.

Ages and stable isotope ratios from speleothem calcite from Cold Water Cave, Iowa

High-precision uranium-thorium mass spectrometric chronology and 18O-13C isotopic analysis of speleothem calcite from Cold Water Cave in northeast Iowa have been used to chart mid-Holocene climate change. Significant shifts in d18O and d13C isotopic values coincide with well-documented Holocene vegetation changes. Temperature estimates based on 18O/16O ratios suggest that the climate warmed rapidly by about 3°C at 5900 years before present and then cooled by 4°C at 3600 years before present. Initiation of a gradual increase in ?d13C at 5900 years before present suggests that turnover of the forest soil biomass was slow and that equilibrium with prairie vegetation was not attained by 3600 years before present.

Global distributions of diazotrophs abundance, biomass and nitrogen fixation rates - Gridded data product (NetCDF) - Contribution to the MAREDAT World Ocean Atlas of Plankton Functional Types

The MAREDAT atlas covers 11 types of plankton, ranging in size from bacteria to jellyfish. Together, these plankton groups determine the health and productivity of the global ocean and play a vital role in the global carbon cycle. Working within a uniform and consistent spatial and depth grid (map) of the global ocean, the researchers compiled thousands and tens of thousands of data points to identify regions of plankton abundance and scarcity as well as areas of data abundance and scarcity. At many of the grid points, the MAREDAT team accomplished the difficult conversion from abundance (numbers of organisms) to biomass (carbon mass of organisms). The MAREDAT atlas provides an unprecedented global data set for ecological and biochemical analysis and modeling as well as a clear mandate for compiling additional existing data and for focusing future data gathering efforts on key groups in key areas of the ocean. This is a gridded data product about diazotrophic organisms . There are 6 variables. Each variable is gridded on a dimension of 360 (longitude) * 180 (latitude) * 33 (depth) * 12 (month). The first group of 3 variables are: (1) number of biomass observations, (2) biomass, and (3) special nifH-gene-based biomass. The second group of 3 variables is same as the first group except that it only grids non-zero data. We have constructed a database on diazotrophic organisms in the global pelagic upper ocean by compiling more than 11,000 direct field measurements including 3 sub-databases: (1) nitrogen fixation rates, (2) cyanobacterial diazotroph abundances from cell counts and (3) cyanobacterial diazotroph abundances from qPCR assays targeting nifH genes. Biomass conversion factors are estimated based on cell sizes to convert abundance data to diazotrophic biomass. Data are assigned to 3 groups including Trichodesmium, unicellular diazotrophic cyanobacteria (group A, B and C when applicable) and heterocystous cyanobacteria (Richelia and Calothrix). Total nitrogen fixation rates and diazotrophic biomass are calculated by summing the values from all the groups. Some of nitrogen fixation rates are whole seawater measurements and are used as total nitrogen fixation rates. Both volumetric and depth-integrated values were reported. Depth-integrated values are also calculated for those vertical profiles with values at 3 or more depths.

Sustainable Energy Production in the United States: Life Cycle Assessment of Biofuels and Bioenergy

The United States of America is making great efforts to transform the renewable and abundant biomass resources into cost-competitive, high-performance biofuels, bioproducts, and biopower. This is the key to increase domestic production of transportation fuels and renewable energy, and reduce greenhouse gas and other pollutant emissions. This dissertation focuses specifically on assessing the life cycle environmental impacts of biofuels and bioenergy produced from renewable feedstocks, such as lignocellulosic biomass, renewable oils and fats. The first part of the dissertation presents the life cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and energy demands of renewable diesel (RD) and hydroprocessed jet fuels (HRJ). The feedstocks include soybean, camelina, field pennycress, jatropha, algae, tallow and etc. Results show that RD and HRJ produced from these feedstocks reduce GHG emissions by over 50% compared to comparably performing petroleum fuels. Fossil energy requirements are also significantly reduced. The second part of this dissertation discusses the life cycle GHG emissions, energy demands and other environmental aspects of pyrolysis oil as well as pyrolysis oil derived biofuels and bioenergy. The feedstocks include waste materials such as sawmill residues, logging residues, sugarcane bagasse and corn stover, and short rotation forestry feedstocks such as hybrid poplar and willow. These LCA results show that as much as 98% GHG emission savings is possible relative to a petroleum heavy fuel oil. Life cycle GHG savings of 77 to 99% were estimated for power generation from pyrolysis oil combustion relative to fossil fuels combustion for electricity, depending on the biomass feedstock and combustion technologies used. Transportation fuels hydroprocessed from pyrolysis oil show over 60% of GHG reductions compared to petroleum gasoline and diesel. The energy required to produce pyrolysis oil and pyrolysis oil derived biofuels and bioelectricity are mainly from renewable biomass, as opposed to fossil energy. Other environmental benefits include human health, ecosystem quality and fossil resources. The third part of the dissertation addresses the direct land use change (dLUC) impact of forest based biofuels and bioenergy. An intensive harvest of aspen in Michigan is investigated to understand the GHG mitigation with biofuels and bioenergy production. The study shows that the intensive harvest of aspen in MI compared to business as usual (BAU) harvesting can produce 18.5 billion gallons of ethanol to blend with gasoline for the transport sector over the next 250 years, or 32.2 billion gallons of bio-oil by the fast pyrolysis process, which can be combusted to generate electricity or upgraded to gasoline and diesel. Intensive harvesting of these forests can result in carbon loss initially in the aspen forest, but eventually accumulates more carbon in the ecosystem, which translates to a CO2 credit from the dLUC impact. Time required for the forest-based biofuels to reach carbon neutrality is approximately 60 years. The last part of the dissertation describes the use of depolymerization model as a tool to understand the kinetic behavior of hemicellulose hydrolysis under dilute acid conditions. Experiments are carried out to measure the concentrations of xylose and xylooligomers during dilute acid hydrolysis of aspen. The experiment data are used to fine tune the parameters of the depolymerization model. The results show that the depolymerization model successfully predicts the xylose monomer profile in the reaction, however, it overestimates the concentrations of xylooligomers.

Modelos preditores da fitomassa aérea da Floresta Baixa de Restinga

Este estudo teve como objetivo desenvolver modelos preditores de fitomassa epigéa da vegetação arbórea da Floresta Baixa de Restinga. Foram selecionadas 102 árvores de 29 espécies ocorrentes na área de estudo e 102 indivíduos de jerivá (Syagrus romanzoffiana (Cham.) Glassman), distribuídos proporcionalmente entre as classes de diâmetro da vegetação arbórea. As árvores foram cortadas, ao nível do solo e foram medidos a altura total e o diâmetro à altura do peito (DAP) de cada árvore. As folhas foram separadas do lenho e a massa fresca da porção lenhosa e foliar medidas separadamente. Amostras de cada fração foram secas a 70 °C, até peso constante, para determinação da massa seca das árvores. Os modelos foram desenvolvidos através de análise de regressão linear, sendo a variável dependente a massa seca (MS) das árvores e as variáveis independentes a altura (h), o diâmetro a altura do peito (d) e as relações d² h e d² h multiplicada pela densidade da madeira (ρ d² h). Os modelos desenvolvidos indicam que o diâmetro explica grande parte da variabilidade da fitomassa das árvores da restinga e a altura é a variável explanatória da equação específica para o jerivá. Os modelos selecionados foram: ln MS (kg) = -1,352 + 2,009 ln d (R² = 0,96; s yx = 0,34) para a comunidade vegetal sem jerivá, ln MS (kg) = -2,052 + 0,801 ln d² h (R² = 0,94; s yx = 0,38) para a comunidade incluindo o jerivá, e ln MS (kg) = -0,884 + 2,40 ln h (R² = 0,92; s yx = 0,49) para o jerivá.

Ympäristöjärjestelmän laatiminen kuljetusorganisaatiolle

Diplomityön päätavoitteena oli kehittää UPM-Kymmene Seaways Oy:lle ISO 14001 -standardiin pohjautuva ympäristöjärjestelmä. Lisäksi tavoitteena oli tuoda organisaatiolle tietämystä ympäristöjohtamisesta, sekä arvioida laaditun järjestelmän toimivuutta organisaation toiminnasta aiheutuvien ympäristöhaittojen vähentäjänä. Järjestelmän laatiminen käsitti suunnittelun, organisoinnin ja toteutuksen keskeisten dokumentointien osalta. Viime vuosina metsäteollisuusyrityksille on luotu paineita ympäristöasioiden hoitamisen tehostamisesta. Tämä on kohdistunut myös metsäteollisuuden kuljetuksiin, joten on ollut perusteltua kehittää myös kuljetusorganisaatioiden ympäristöjohtamista. UPM-Kymmene Seaways Oy:n ympäristöjohtamisen kehittämistyössä lähdettiin organisaation sidosryhmien odotuksista liikkeelle. Lisäksi tutustuttiin kuljetusten aiheuttamiin ympäristöhaittoihin ja selvitettiin organisaation vaikutusmahdollisuuksia haittojen vähentämiseen. Johtamisjärjestelmä pyrittiin luomaan luonnolliseksi osaksi jokapäiväistä toimintaa, joka ottaa ympäristöasiat huomioon myös toiminnan jatkuvassa kehittämisessä. Laadittu ympäristöjärjestelmä integroituna osaksi kokonaisvaltaista toimintajärjestelmää täytti organisaation sille asettamat tavoitteet melko hyvin. Järjestelmän mukana tuoma työn määrä ei kasvanut liian suureksi ja ympäristöasioista muodostui yksi merkittävä päätöksiin vaikuttavista tekijöistä.

Häiriöaineiden vaikutus käytettäessä magnesiumhydroksidialkalia mekaanisen massan peroksidivalkaisussa

Nykypäivänä ympäristön suojelu ja erityisesti jätevesipäästöjen pienentäminen vaikuttavat yhä enemmän metsäteollisuuden toimintatapoihin. Lisäksi veden käytön vähentyessä ja prosesseja suljettaessa silikaatteihin väistämättä liittyvät saostumat ovat kasvava ongelma. Magnesiumhydroksidin on havaittu olevan potentiaalinen natriumhydroksidin korvaava alkali mekaanisen massan peroksidivalkaisussa. Lisäksi magnesiumhydroksidilla voidaan saavuttaa lähes yhtä korkea vaaleus, jopa ilman silikaattia, kuin natriumhydroksidilla natriumsilikaatin kanssa. Magnesiumhydroksidin orgaanista ainesta liuottava vaikutus on myös noin puolet verrattuna natriumhydroksidiin. Työssä selvitettiin, miten häiriöaineet vaikuttavat mekaanisen massan peroksidivalkaisuun käytettäessä magnesiumhydroksidialkalia. Laboratoriokokeiden tulokset osoittivat, että magnesiumhydroksidi kesti paremmin valkaisussa käytettyjä häiriöaineita. Pienillä metallilisäyksillä ei ole vaikutusta massan vaaleuteen käytettäessä magnesiumhydroksidia. Korvattaessa laimennusvettä viirapuristimen suodoksella peroksidi kului lähes loppuun käytettäessä natriumhydroksidia, mikä näkyi myös vaaleuden heikkenemisenä. Valkaisukokeiden perusteella magnesiumhydroksidialkalilla jäädään jopa kolme prosenttiyksikköä natriumhydroksidin kanssa saadusta vaaleudesta, peroksidiannoksen olleessa kolme prosenttia. Mutta käytettäessä magnesiumhydroksidialkalia liuenneen orgaanisen hiilen kokonaismäärä (TOC) sekä biologinen (BOD7) että kemiallinen (CODcr) hapenkulutus pienenivät lähes puolella.

Projektimarkkinoinnin haasteet ja suhteiden tunnistaminen

Tässä tutkimustyössä oli tavoitteena tutkia projektimarkkinointiin liittyviä haasteita, joita Andritz Oy Wood Processing on kohdannut yhdessä sellu- ja paperiteollisuuden projektissa ja kolmessa puupohjaisen biomassavoimalaitoksen projektissa. Työn tarkoitus oli nostaa esille millaisia yhteisiä haasteita näiden tutkittujen projektien välillä on olemassa ja mihin työn kohteena olevan yrityksen tulisi keskittyä projektimarkkinointiprosessissa. Teoriaosiossa käsitellään monipuolisesti projektiliiketoimintaan liittyviä teorioita. Ensimmäiseksi tarkastellaan projektimarkkinointi- ja projektimarkkinointiprosessimalleja. Näiden jälkeen tutkitaan D-U-C-mallia (epäjatkuvuus, ainutkertaisuus ja monimutkaisuus), joka esiintyy hyvin monen tutkijan tutkimuksissa, kun käsitellään projektiliiketoimintaa. Lopuksi teoriaosiossa tarkastellaan asiakassuhteita ja miljööanalyysia projektiliiketoiminnassa. Tutkimuksen empiirisessä ensimmäisessä osiossa käydään läpi projektimarkkinointiin liittyvät haasteet, jotka löytyivät tutkituista tapausesimerkeistä. Tämän jälkeen jokaisesta projektista on laadittu miljöökartoitus, jonka perusteella nähdään projektien miljöiden vaihtelevuus. Viimeisenä asiana empiirisessä osiossa käydään läpi perusteet, jotka vaikuttivat projektitoimittajan valintaan. Teoreettisen ja empiirisen aineiston pohjalta on laadittu yritykselle suosituksia, joiden uskotaan parantavan yrityksen kilpailukykyä projektiliiketoiminnassa. Esiin nousseet asiat projektimarkkinoinnissa ovat monille itsestään selvyyksiä, mutta niiden toteuttamisessa on vielä paljon kehitettävää.

Puuperäisten biomassahydrolysaattien likaamien membraanien pesu

Tässä diplomityössä tutkittiin biomassahydrolysaatilla liattujen ultrasuodatusmembraanien pesua. Työn kirjallisuusosassa käsitellään membraanien likaantumista ja pesua, puuperäistä biomassahydrolysaattia sekä biomassahydrolysaatin suodatusta membraaneilla ja membraanien karakterisointia. Kokeellisessa osassa tutkittiin pesuaineiden vaikutusta koivuhydrolysaatilla liattujen membraanien peseytyvyyteen. Käytetyt ultrasuodatusmembraanit olivat Alfa Lavalin UFX5 ja ETNA01PP. Membraanien pesussa käytettiin Ecolabin entsymaattisia P3-ultrasil 53 ja P3-ultrasil 67 pesuaineita yhdessä emäksisen P3-ultrasil 69 pesuaineen kanssa sekä hapanta P3-ultrasil 75 pesuainetta. Lisäksi emäksisiä P3-ultrasil 110, P3-ultrasil 112 ja P3-ultrasil 115 pesuaineita. Emäksisten pesujen tehokkuutta vertailtiin pelkällä natriumhydroksidilla tehtyyn pesuun. Membraanien likaantumista arvioitiin mittaamalla puhtaan veden vuota ennen ja jälkeen likaantumissuodatuksen ja laskemalla niiden vuoarvojen erotus. Samalla tavalla arvioitiin pesuaineiden vaikutusta membraanin peseytyvyyteen. Lisäksi peseytyvyyttä arvioitiin FTIR–analyyseillä, kontaktikulmamittauksilla ja membraanin sisältämän ligniinin värjäyksellä. Tutkimuksissa havaittiin, että koivuhydrolysaatilla liatuille UFX5 membraaneille vesivuon sekä FTIR–spektrin muuttumisen perusteella sopii parhaiten emäksisen ja happaman pesuaineen kaksivaiheinen pesu. Kontaktikulman palautumisen perusteella parhaiten sopi pelkällä emäksisellä P3-Ultrasil 115 tehty pesu. Ligniiniä parhaiten, mikroskooppiin liitetyllä kameralla otettujen kuvien perusteella, poisti entsymaattinen P3-ultrasil 67, mutta tämä samalla modifioi membraanin pintaa. Tässä tutkimuksessa havaittiin, että emäksinen ja entsymaattinen pesuaine pesevät melko hyvin koivuhydrolysaatilla liattuja membraaneja. Lisäksi havaittiin, että ligniini tunkeutuu suodatuksissa membraanin sisään, joten pelkkä pesuaineen kierrättäminen laitteistossa ei riitä vaan tarvitaan paineellista pesua.