Foraging behaviour of Helicoverpa armigera first instar larvae on crop plants of different developmental stages

Understanding how insect pests forage on their food plants can help optimize management strategies. Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) (Lep., Noctuidae) is a major polyphagous pest of agricultural crops worldwide. The immature stages feed and forage on crops at all stages of plant development, damaging fruiting and non-fruiting structures, yet very little is known about the influence of host type or stage on the location and behaviour of larvae. Through semi-continuous observation, we evaluated the foraging (movement and feeding) behaviours of H. armigera first instar larvae as well as the proportion of time spent at key locations on mungbean [Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek] and pigeon pea [Cajanus cajan (L.) Millspaugh] of differing developmental stages: seedling- and mature (flowering/pod fill)-stage plants. Both host type and age affected the behaviour of larvae. Larvae spent more time in the upper parts of mature plants than on seedlings and tended to stay at the top of mature plants if they moved there. This difference was greater in pigeon pea than in mungbean. The proportion of time allocated to feeding on different parts of a plant differed with host and age. More feeding occurred in the top of mature pigeon pea plants but did not differ between mature and seedling mungbean plants. The duration of key behaviours did not differ between plant ages in either crop type and was similar between hosts although resting bouts were substantially longer on mungbeans. Thus a polyphagous species such as H. armigera does not forage in equivalent ways on different hosts in the first instar stage.

Parenting behaviours and maternal infant-feeding practices in first-time Australian mothers

Introduction: There is emerging evidence that parenting style and early feeding practices are associated with child intake, eating behaviours and weight status. The aim of this cross sectional study was to examine the relationships between general maternal parenting behaviour and feeding practices and beliefs. Methods: Participants were 421 first-time mothers of 9-22 week old healthy term infants (49% male, mean±sd age 19±4 weeks) enrolled in the NOURISH trial. At baseline mothers self-reported their parenting behaviours (self-efficacy, warmth, irritability) and infant-feeding beliefs using questions from the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children and the Infant Feeding Questionnaire (Baughcum, 2001), respectively. Multivariable regression analyses were used with feeding practices (four factors) as the dependent variables, Independent variables were maternal BMI, weight concern, age, education level perception of infant weight status, feeding mode (breast vs formula) and infant gender, age and weight gain z-score. Results: Parenting behaviours partly were associated with feeding beliefs (adjusted R2 =0.21-0.30). Higher maternal parenting self-efficacy was inversely associated with concerns that the baby would become underweight (p=0.006); become overweight (p<0.001); and lack of awareness of infant hunger/satiety cues (p<0.001). Higher maternal irritability was positively associated with lack of awareness of cues (p<0.05). Maternal warmth was not associated with any feeding beliefs. Infant weight- gain (from birth) z-score and age, maternal BMI and education level and mothers’ perception of infant weight status and feeding mode were covariates. Conclusions: These findings suggest strategies to improve early feeding practices need to be address broader parenting approaches, particularly self-efficacy and irritability.

Associations between parenting behaviours and feeding beliefs of first-time Australian mothers in the NOURISH obesity prevention trial

Purpose: Parenting style and early feeding practices have been linked to child intake, eating behaviour and weight status. The purpose of this study was to examine associations between general maternal parenting behaviours and feeding beliefs in Australian mothers of 11-17 month-old children. Methods: This cross-sectional analysis included 223 first-time mothers and their children (49% male, mean age 14 [sd 1] months) enrolled in the control group of the NOURISH trial. Mothers self-reported their feeding beliefs and parenting behaviours (overprotection, irritability, warmth, autonomy-encouraging) using modified questions from the Infant Feeding Questionnaire (Baughcum, 2001) and the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children. Multiple regression analyses were conducted, using feeding beliefs (four factors) as dependent and parenting behaviours as independent variables while adjusting for child gender, age, weight-for-age z-score and maternal age, education level, feeding mode (breast vs. non-breast), and perception of own pre-pregnancy and child weight status. Results/Findings: Two of four parenting behaviours were significantly associated with feeding beliefs. Maternal warmth was inversely associated with concerns that the child would become underweight (β=-0.156, p=0.022) and positively associated with mothers’ awareness of child’s hunger/satiety cues (β=0.303, p<0.001). Mothers’ overprotection was positively associated with concerns that the child would become underweight (β=0.213, p=0.001); become overweight (β=0.174, p=0.005); and mother’s responsive feeding (β=0.135, p=0.057). Weight-for-age z-score, mothers’ perception of their child and own weight status, education, feeding mode, and child’s age were significant covariates. Conclusions: Feeding occurs within the broader parenting context. Improving early feeding beliefs and practices may require addressing mother’s approaches to parenting, especially warmth and overprotection.

Maternal feeding practices predict weight gain and obesogenic eating behaviours in young children : a prospective study

Background Maternal feeding practices have been proposed to play an important role in early child weight gain and obesogenic eating behariours. However, to date longitudinal investigations in young children exploring these relationships have been lacking. The aim of the present study was to explore prospective relationships between maternal feeding practices, child weight gain and obesogenic eating behaviours in 2-year-old children. The competing hypothesis that child eating behaviours predict changes in maternal feeding practices was also examined.

Methods A sample of 323 mother (mean age = 35 years, + 0.37) and child dyads (mean age = 2.03 years, + 0.37 at recruitment) were participants. Mothers completed a questionnaire assessing parental feeding practices and child eating behaviours at baseline and again one year later. Child BMI (predominantly objectively measured) was obtained at both time points.

Results Increases in child BMI z-scores over the follow-up period were predicted by maternal instrumental feeding practices. Furthermore, restriction, emotional feeding, encouragement to eat, weight-based restriction and fat restriction were associated prospectively with the development of obesogenic eating behaviours in children including emotional eating, tendency to overeat and food approach behaviours (such as enjoyment of food and good appetite). Maternal monitoring, however, predicted decreases in food approach eating behaviours. Partial support was also observed for child eating behaviours predicting maternal feeding practices.

Conclusions Maternal feeding practices play an important role in the development of weight gain and obesogenic eating behaviours in young children and are potential targets for effective prevention interventions aiming to decrease child obesity.

Caries and its association with infant feeding and oral health-related behaviours in 3-4-year-old Brazilian children

Objectives: To investigate the relationships between socio-demographic factors, infant feeding habits, oral hygiene and the prevalence and patterns of caries in Brazilian 3-4-year-olds. Methods: Systematic random sampling was used to select children enrolled in municipal nurseries in Araraquara, Brazil, in 1998. Clinical examinations were carried out by one examiner using dmft and dmfs indices and WHO criteria. Questionnaires for information related to the socio-demographic background, oral hygiene and dietary history of the children were completed by their mothers. Results: Caries was seen in 46% of the children; 17% of them had the more extensive pattern involving molars and incisors. Social class, mother's education, and age at which breast-feeding terminated showed statistically significant associations with caries. Feeding bottles with added sugars were still being given to 80% of the children. When the significant variables were taken into account only age at which breast-feeding terminated showed a significant relationship to the pattern of disease. Children who were never breast-fed or were breast-fed beyond the age of 24 months had a higher prevalence of the more extensive pattern of caries. Conclusions: The association between the length of time a mother breast-feeds and extensive caries should be a consideration in any local infant feeding policies or health promotion strategies. The duration for appropriate breast- or bottle-feeding should be emphasised.

Sibling eating behaviours and differential child feeding practices reported by parents

The purpose of this study was to investigate the intra-familial relationships between parental reports of feeding practices used with siblings in the same family, and to evaluate whether differences in feeding practices are related to differences in siblings' eating behaviours. Eighty parents of two sibling children completed measures assessing their feeding practices and child eating behaviours. Parents reported using greater restrictive feeding practices with children who were fussier and desired to drink more than their sibling. Parents reported using more pressure to eat with siblings who were slower to eat, were fussier, emotionally under-ate, enjoyed food less, were less responsive to food, and were more responsive to internal satiety cues. Restriction and pressure to eat appear to be part of the non-shared environment which sibling children experience differently. These feeding practices may be used differently for children in the same family in response to child eating behaviours or other specific characteristics.

Stability and continuity of parentally reported child eating behaviours and feeding practices from 2 to 5 years of age

Previous research suggests that many eating behaviours are stable in children but that obesigenic eating behaviours tend to increase with age. This research explores the stability (consistency in individual levels over time) and continuity (consistency in group levels over time) of child eating behaviours and parental feeding practices in children between 2 and 5 years of age. Thirty one participants completed measures of child eating behaviours, parental feeding practices and child weight at 2 and 5 years of age. Child eating behaviours and parental feeding practices remained stable between 2 and 5 years of age. There was also good continuity in measures of parental restriction and monitoring of food intake, as well as in mean levels of children's eating behaviours and BMI over time. Mean levels of maternal pressure to eat significantly increased, whilst mean levels of desire to drink significantly decreased, between 2 and 5 years of age. These findings suggest that children's eating behaviours are stable and continuous in the period prior to 5 years of age. Further research is necessary to replicate these findings and to explore why later developmental increases are seen in children's obesigenic eating behaviours. © 2011 Elsevier Ltd.

Food avoidance in children:the influence of maternal feeding practices and behaviours

The aim of this study was to examine the contribution of a broad range of maternal feeding practices in predicting parental reports of food avoidance eating behaviours in young children, after controlling for child temperament, and maternal dietary restraint which have previously been associated with feeding problems. One hundred and four mothers of children aged between 3 and 6 years completed self report measures of their child's eating behaviour and temperament, maternal dietary restraint and child feeding practices. Maternal reports of food avoidance eating behaviours were associated with an emotional child temperament, high levels of maternal feeding control, using food for behaviour regulation and low encouragement of a balanced and varied food intake. Maternal feeding practices, predominantly pressure to eat, significantly predicted food avoidance eating behaviours after controlling for child emotionality and maternal dietary restraint. The significant contribution of maternal feeding practices, which are potentially modifiable behaviours, suggests that the feeding interactions of parents and their children should be targeted for intervention and the prevention of feeding difficulties during early childhood. Future research should continue to explore how a broader range of feeding practices, particular those that may be more adaptive, might influence child eating behaviour. © 2011 Elsevier Ltd.

Eating behaviours of preadolescent children over time:stability, continuity and the moderating role of perceived parental feeding practices

The links between childhood eating behaviours and parental feeding practices are well-established in younger children, but there is a lack of research examining these variables in a preadolescent age group, particularly from the child's perspective, and longitudinally. This study firstly aimed to examine the continuity and stability of preadolescent perceptions of their parents' controlling feeding practices (pressure to eat and restriction) over a 12 month period. The second aim was to explore if perceptions of parental feeding practices moderated the relationship between preadolescents' eating behaviours longitudinally. Two hundred and twenty nine preadolescents (mean age at recruitment 8.73 years) completed questionnaires assessing their eating behaviours and their perceptions of parental feeding practices at two time points, 12 months apart (T1 and T2). Preadolescents' perceptions of their parental feeding practices remained stable. Perceptions of restriction and pressure to eat were continuous. Perceptions of parental pressure to eat and restriction significantly moderated the relationships between eating behaviours at T1 and T2. The findings from this study suggest that in a preadolescent population, perceptions of parental pressure to eat and restriction of food may exacerbate the development of problematic eating behaviours.

The NOURISH randomised control trial : positive feeding practices and food preferences in early childhood - a primary prevention program for childhood obesity

Background Primary prevention of childhood overweight is an international priority. In Australia 20-25% of 2-8 year olds are already overweight. These children are at substantially increased the risk of becoming overweight adults, with attendant increased risk of morbidity and mortality. Early feeding practices determine infant exposure to food (type, amount, frequency) and include responses (eg coercion) to infant feeding behaviour (eg. food refusal). There is correlational evidence linking parenting style and early feeding practices to child eating behaviour and weight status. A focus on early feeding is consistent with the national focus on early childhood as the foundation for life-long health and well being. The NOURISH trial aims to implement and evaluate a community-based intervention to promote early feeding practices that will foster healthy food preferences and intake and preserve the innate capacity to self-regulate food intake in young children. Methods/Design This randomised controlled trial (RCT) aims to recruit 820 first-time mothers and their healthy term infants. A consecutive sample of eligible mothers will be approached postnatally at major maternity hospitals in Brisbane and Adelaide. Initial consent will be for re-contact for full enrolment when the infants are 4-7 months old. Individual mother- infant dyads will be randomised to usual care or the intervention. The intervention will provide anticipatory guidance via two modules of six fortnightly parent education and peer support group sessions, each followed by six months of regular maintenance contact. The modules will commence when the infants are aged 4-7 and 13-16 months to coincide with establishment of solid feeding, and autonomy and independence, respectively. Outcome measures will be assessed at baseline, with follow up at nine and 18 months. These will include infant intake (type and amount of foods), food preferences, feeding behaviour and growth and self-reported maternal feeding practices and parenting practices and efficacy. Covariates will include sociodemographics, infant feeding mode and temperament, maternal weight status and weight concern and child care exposure. Discussion Despite the strong rationale to focus on parents’ early feeding practices as a key determinant of child food preferences, intake and self-regulatory capacity, prospective longitudinal and intervention studies are rare. This trial will be amongst to provide Level II evidence regarding the impact of an intervention (commencing prior to age 12 months) on children’s eating patterns and behaviours. Trial Registration: ACTRN12608000056392

Maternal correlates of maternal child feeding practices : a systematic review

Establishing healthy eating habits early in life is one important strategy to combat childhood obesity. Given that early maternal child feeding practices have been linked to child food intake and weight, identifying the maternal correlates of maternal child feeding practices is important in order to understand the determinants of childhood obesity; this was the overall aim of the current review. Academic databases were searched for studies examining the relationship between maternal child feeding practices and parenting, personal characteristics and psychopathology of mothers with preschoolers. Papers were limited to those published in English, between January 2000 - June 2012. Only studies with mothers of normally developing children between the ages of 2 - 6 years were included. There were no restrictions regarding the inclusion of maternal nationality or SES. Seventeen eligible studies were sourced. Information on the aim, sample, measures and findings of these was summarised into tables. The findings of this review support a relationship between maternal controlling parenting, general and eating psychopathology, and socioeconomic status and maternal child feeding practices. The main methodological issues of the studies reviewed included inconsistency in measures of maternal variables across studies and cross-sectional designs. We conclude that the maternal correlates associated with maternal child feeding practices are complex, and the pathways by which maternal correlates impact these feeding practices require further investigation.

Child eating behaviour outcomes of an early feeding intervention to reduce risk indicators for child obesity : the NOURISH RCT

Objective Describe parent-reported child eating behaviour and maternal parenting impact outcomes of an infant feeding intervention to reduce child obesity risk. Design and Methods An assessor masked Randomised Controlled Trial (RCT) with concealed allocation of individual mother-infant dyads. The NOURISH RCT enrolled 698 first-time mothers (mean age 30.1 years, SD=5.3) with healthy term infants (51% female) aged 4.3 months (SD=1.0) at baseline. Outcomes were assessed six months post-intervention when the children were 2-years old. Mothers reported on child eating behaviours using the Child Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (CEBQ), food preferences and dietary intake using a 24-hour telephone recall. Parenting was assessed using five scales validated for use in Australia. Results Intervention effects were evident on the CEBQ overall (MANOVA P=.002) and 4/8 subscales: child satiety responsiveness (P=.03), fussiness (P=.01), emotional overeating (P<.01), and food responsiveness (P=.06). Intervention children ‘liked’ more fruits (P<.01) and fewer non-core foods and beverages (Ps=.06, .03). The intervention mothers reported greater ‘autonomy encouragement’ (P=.002) Conclusions Anticipatory guidance on protective feeding practices appears to have modest positive impacts on child eating behaviours that are postulated to reduce future obesity risk.

The feeding practices and structure questionnaire : construction and initial validation in a sample of Australian first-time mothers and their 2-year olds

Background Early feeding practices lay the foundation for children’s eating habits and weight gain. Questionnaires are available to assess parental feeding but overlapping and inconsistent items, subscales and terminology limit conceptual clarity and between study comparisons. Our aim was to consolidate a range of existing items into a parsimonious and conceptually robust questionnaire for assessing feeding practices with very young children (<3 years). Methods Data were from 462 mothers and children (age 21–27 months) from the NOURISH trial. Items from five questionnaires and two study-specific items were submitted to a priori item selection, allocation and verification, before theoretically-derived factors were tested using Confirmatory Factor Analysis. Construct validity of the new factors was examined by correlating these with child eating behaviours and weight. Results Following expert review 10 factors were specified. Of these, 9 factors (40 items) showed acceptable model fit and internal reliability (Cronbach’s α: 0.61-0.89). Four factors reflected non-responsive feeding practices: ‘Distrust in Appetite’, ‘Reward for Behaviour’, ‘Reward for Eating’, and ‘Persuasive Feeding’. Five factors reflected structure of the meal environment and limits: ‘Structured Meal Setting’, ‘Structured Meal Timing’, ‘Family Meal Setting’, ‘Overt Restriction’ and ‘Covert Restriction’. Feeding practices generally showed the expected pattern of associations with child eating behaviours but none with weight. Conclusion The Feeding Practices and Structure Questionnaire (FPSQ) provides a new reliable and valid measure of parental feeding practices, specifically maternal responsiveness to children’s hunger/satiety signals facilitated by routine and structure in feeding. Further validation in more diverse samples is required.