Análise exploratória e variabilidade dos parâmetros da equação da condutividade hidráulica, em um experimento de perfil instantâneo

No contexto das Ciências Agronômicas e Ambientais, a função condutividade hidráulica K(teta), isto é, a condutividade hidráulica (K) em função da umidade (teta), tem especial importância para os estudos e solução de problemas práticos relacionados, dentre outros, com a irrigação, drenagem e lixiviação de nutrientes e poluentes. Quantificar e caracterizar a variabilidade deste parâmetro hídrico é fundamental para a obtenção de valores médios representativos que possam ser utilizados com segurança nas suas diversas aplicações. Objetivando caracterizar o comportamento estatístico e quantificar a variabilidade dos parâmetros da equação representativa da função K(teta), realizou-se um experimento de campo para determinação desta função pelo método do perfil instantâneo em um Latossolo Vermelho-Amarelo (Typic Hapludox), numa transeção de 50 pontos distanciados entre si de 1 m. As equações obtidas foram do tipo K = Kteta = 0 exp(bq) e os resultados indicaram que os padrões de variabilidade dos parâmetros beta e lnKteta=0, bem como de teta, aumentaram em profundidade e não apresentaram relação entre si. Verificou-se também que a presença de valores extremos alterava as medidas estatísticas relativas aos parâmetros da função K(teta), com reflexos significativos quanto ao número de amostras necessárias para estimar o valor médio destes parâmetros, sendo importante sua identificação antes de aplicar determinado método para avaliação da condutividade hidráulica do solo.

Estoque e disponibilidade de nitrogênio no solo em experimento de longa duração

O N é o nutriente requerido em maior quantidade pelas culturas agrícolas em geral e, normalmente, é o maior limitante de seu rendimento. Neste estudo, objetivou-se avaliar o efeito de sistemas de culturas no estoque de N total do solo e na disponibilidade deste nutriente. O estudo foi desenvolvido em um experimento de longa duração (22 anos), em um Argissolo Vermelho distrófico típico localizado na Estação Experimental Agronômica da Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (30 ° 50 ' 52 '' sul e 51 ° 38 ' 08 '' oeste), em Eldorado do Sul, RS. Este experimento iniciou-se em 1983 e está sendo realizado desde sua implantação sob sistema plantio direto, com dez sistemas de culturas (solo descoberto, pousio/milho, aveia/milho, pangola, aveia + ervilhaca/milho com solo corrigido e revolvido até 70 cm em 1992, aveia + ervilhaca/milho, aveia + ervilhaca/milho + caupi, guandu + lablabe, lablabe + milho e guandu + milho) e duas doses de N (0 e 180 kg ha-1) aplicadas no milho. Foram avaliados os estoques de N total do solo na camada de 0-20 cm em 2005 e estimadas as quantidades de N fixadas pelas leguminosas e perdidas do adubo nitrogenado mineral em 22 anos. Adicionalmente, foi avaliado o N acumulado pela aveia cultivada em sucessão ao milho em 2006. O estoque de N total, que era de 3.040 kg ha-1 em 1983, variou em 2005 de 2.500 a 4.800 kg ha-1, sendo os maiores estoques encontrados nos sistemas com leguminosas e adubação nitrogenada. A quantidade estimada de N fixado pelas leguminosas variou de 800 a 1.980 kg ha-1 e, na média, 48 % do N mineral aplicado no milho (3.180 kg ha-1) foi perdido do sistema solo-planta. Os maiores estoques de N total refletiram-se nas maiores quantidades de N acumulado pela aveia que variaram de 17 a 100 kg ha-1.

A consideração da estrutura das unidades em inferências derivadas do experimento

O modelo estatístico deve exprimir corretamente a estrutura do experimento. Isso é necessário para garantir que os componentes de variância que afetam efeitos referentes a fatores experimentais sejam idênticos aos componentes de variância usados para julgar a significância desses efeitos, exceto pelas próprias variâncias atribuíveis a esses efeitos. O modelo estatístico usualmente formulado ignora a estrutura das unidades que resulta de restrições à casualização. Como conseqüência, propriedades que decorrem da casualização não são apropriadamente levadas em conta, e inferências podem se tornar tendenciosas. Sugere-se um procedimento para identificação dos efeitos referentes à estrutura das unidades, e sua consideração no modelo estatístico e em inferências derivadas do experimento. Em particular, é proposto um algoritmo para a determinação prática dos valores esperados de quadrados médios que levam em conta apropriadamente a estrutura do experimento.

Uma Demonstração Sobre o Espalhamento Inelástico de Luz: Repetindo o Experimento de Raman

An adaptation of the Raman experiment is presented as a very convenient, simple and easily made demonstration about inelastic light scattering. The procedure involves an overhead projector, a rectangular and transparent cell, complementary filters and solvent. Alternatively a spectrofluorimeter can he used to evaluate how weak Raman scattering is.

Química orgânica experimental: integração de teoria, experimento e análise

A new approach for teaching in basic experimental organic chemistry is presented. Experimental work goes on parallel to theoretical lectures leading to an immediate application of theoretical concepts transmitted therein. One day/week is dedicated exclusively to the organic laboratory. Reactions are proposed as problems to be solved; the student has to deduce the structure of the product on the basis of his observations, the analytical data and his mechanistical knowledge. 70 different experiments, divided in 7 thematical chapters, are presented. All experiments require the analysis and discussion of 1H and 13C NMR, IR and UV spectra. Additional questions about each reaction have to be answered by the student in his written report. Laboratory safety is garanteed by the exclusion or substitution of hazardous and toxic reagents. Microscale preparations are adopted in most cases to lower the cost of materials and the amount of waste. Recycling of many reaction products as starting materials in other experiments reduces the need for commercial reagents and allows the execution of longer reaction sequences. Only unexpensive standard laboratory equipment and simple glassware are required. All experiments include instructions for the save treatment or disposal of chemical waste.

Processo químico industrial de extração de óleo vegetal: um experimento de química geral

In this study we describe an experimental procedure based on a chemical industrial process of soya-bean oil extraction applied in general chemistry for undergraduate students. The experiment was planned according to the Science, Technology and Society (STS) approach to teach basic chemical concepts and provide grounding in the management of environmental care. The use of real life chemistry problems seems to salient the relevance of chemistry to our students and enhances their motivation to learn both the practical and theoretical components of the discipline.

Avaliação da capacidade tamponante - um experimento participativo

The aim of this work is to show an experiment from which students can learn some of the main characteristics of buffer solutions. A mixture of some acid-base indicators, named as Yamada's indicator, can be used to estimate pH values in an acid-base titration of a buffer, with good approximation. In the experiment it is also possible to verify the relationship between the buffer capacity and the concentrations and the molar ratio of the components of a NH3 / NH4+ buffer solution. The shortage of experiments associated with the relative small importance given to many aspects of buffer solutions, is now explored with simplicity. In the proposed experiments, students prepare buffer solutions by themselves, calculate the pH, understand how acid-base indicators act and learn how buffer solutions work through graph constructed by sharing experimental data.

Determinacion de la configuracion E-Z de los acidos Fumarico y Maleico. Un experimento orientado a incentivar el desarrollo de la investigacion cientifica en alumnos de Pregrado

In this work we intend to eliminate the idea that laboratory exercises seem like cookbooks. That is, exercises shall be presented as a problematic situation. Based on observation and experimentation, the students should determine the E-Z configuration of maleic and fumaric acids. The basis of this laboratory exercise is the acid-catalyzed isomerization of maleic acid to fumaric acid. Students are given the starting material, reagents and the experimental procedure. They are told that the starting material is a dicarboxylic acid containing a C=C double bond of formula C4H4O4. Students determine melting points, solubilities, acidity and chromatographic patterns for both the starting material and the product, so that a configuration of each acid can be proposed. This type of experiment yields excellent results, because the students are left to deduce that maleic acid is less stable than fumaric acid. Additionally, they conclude that maleic acid is the "Z" isomer and fumaric acid is the "E" isomer. Finally, this laboratory exercise allows the students to develop simultaneously their critical-thinking skills with the respective laboratory techniques and not to see chemistry as recipes to be followed.

Aplicação de extratos brutos de flores de quaresmeira e azaléia e da casca de feijão preto em volumetria ácido-base. Um experimento para cursos de análise quantitativa

Crude extract of Tibouchina granulosa, Rhododendron simsii and Phaseolus vulgaris L. were prepared and used as alternative indicators in quantitative analysis teaching in standardization of NaOH solutions and in the determination of acetic acid contents in vinegar. Effect of using such natural extracts as indicators was very attractive to the students and the quantitative results were compared with conventional indicators with good agreement. Concepts of data statistics can successfully be discussed using the interest revived by the use of natural indicators.

Preparação de compostos de alumínio a partir da bauxita: considerações sobre alguns aspectos envolvidos em um experimento didático

Aluminum metal and aluminum compounds have many applications in several branches of the industry and in our daily lives. The most important raw material for aluminum and its manufactured compounds is bauxite, a rock constituted mainly by aluminum hydroxides minerals. In this work, a didactic experiment aiming the preparation of alumina and potassium alum starting from bauxite is proposed for undergraduate students. Both compounds are of great commercial, scientific and historical interest. The experiment involves applications of important chemical principles such as acid-base and precipitation. Some chemical properties and uses of aluminum compounds are also illustrated.

Um experimento com propostas múltiplas para um laboratório de química geral

This article suggests a sequence of experiments on the preparation, analysis and some photochemical aspects of potassium tris (oxalato) ferrate(III) trihydrate. The sequence of experiments could be carried out in four or five 4-hour laboratory periods. The new part of this article is related to the kinetics studies involving the ambient illumination as well as the use of the cellophane paper of different colors as light filters. The aspects such as quantum yield, light absorption and photochemical reactions are explored in order to illustrate the relationships between the exposure time, light intensity and wavelength range on the photochemical reactions.

A extração de cafeína em bebidas estimulantes: uma nova abordagem para um experimento clássico em química orgânica

Caffeine extraction procedures from water soluble and water insoluble materials for preparing stimulating beverages are described. Water soluble materials used were instant tea and coffee and water insoluble materials were, among others, guaraná powder and maté leaves. The extraction of caffeine from water soluble materials, especially instant tea, is more suitable for an organic chemistry teaching laboratory than the classic experiment using tea leaves, due to the economy of time and a larger amount of extracted caffeine. The procedure is time-saving and requires only a four-hour period. The experiments illustrate the extraction process as used in undergraduate organic chemistry laboratories.

Preparação e caracterização do complexo cobaloxima e sua utilização na construção de um eletrodo modificado: um experimento eletroquímico no curso de graduação

The present experiment describes the preparation, characterization of n-butyl(pyridil)cobaloxime complex and its electrochemical property. The infrared and uv-visible absorption spectra were used to characterize the complex obtained. The infrared spectrum of the compound showed characteristics bands that indicated the formation of the Co-C chemical bond formation. The electronic absorption spectrum in acetonitrile showed transition bands attributed to p-p*, metal-to-ligand charge transfer, d-d transitions and charge transfer Co-C. The electrochemical property was investigated by the pulse differential voltammetry technique. Two oxidation processes: Co(I)/Co(II) at -423 mV and Co(II)/Co(III) at 752 mV were observed.

Qual o sítio de reação? Um experimento computacional

A computational quantum chemistry experiment is described on the determination of the most reactive atom in a molecule for a reaction. The reaction studied was the S N2 of 4-(dimethylamino)pyridine and methyl iodide. Several indexes (HOMO coefficent, (c), charges, (q), nucleophilic softness, (s+), and Fukui index, (f+)) were employed to verify which correctly describe what nitrogen will react. The calculations were made by AM1 and HF/STO-3G methods. The correct reactivity order is only reproduced by s+ and f+. The lack of agreement of FMO based indexes was discussed.

Um experimento-charada usando data-show e resinas de troca iônica

A demonstractive experiment was proposed in order to verify students' habilities in recognizing the presence and nature of ions in solutions, before and after their passage through ion-exchange columns. The students have no previous contact with ion-exchange resins, so they must deduce how they work and explain the experimental facts. The performance of classes, at different stages of learning, is compared and discussed.