Employment and Income of Workers on Indonesian Oil Palm Plantations: Food Crisis at the Micro Level

The importance of oil palm sector for Indonesia is inevitable as the country currently serves as the world’s largest producer of crude palm oil. This paper focuses on the situation of workers on Indonesian oil palm plantations. It attempts to investigate whether the remarkable development of the sector is followed by employment opportunities and income generation for workers. This question is posed within the theoretical framework on the link between trade liberalisation and labour rights, particularly in a labour-intensive and low-skilled sector. Based on extensive field research in Riau, this paper confirms that despite the rapid development of the oil palm plantation sector in Indonesia, the situations of workers in the sector remain deplorable, particularly their employment status and income. This also attests that trade liberalisation in the sector adversely affects labour rights. The poor working conditions also have ramifications for food security at the micro level.

Addressing endogeneity in the relationship between health and employment through a simultaneous equations model

Este documento analiza la relación de doble causalidad entre salud y empleo y su comportamiento dinámico usando datos de Estados Unidos tomados del PSID (Pane Study of Income Dynamics). Este estudio usa dos variables dependientes (Estado de salud auto-reportado y Empleo), las cuales son estimadas usando un modelo probit bivariado para abordar el problema de endegeneidad presente en dicha relación. Los resultados muestran evidencia significativa de la existencia de dicha endogeneidad y del impacto positivo que tiene sobre la probabilidad de ser empleado tener un buen estado de salud y vicesersa, sin embargo, el impacto de la situación de empleo sobre el estado de salud se encuentra que no es significativa.

Associations between family circumstance and weight status of Australian children

To examine associations between weight status and multiple indicators of family circumstance in Australian elementary school children. Data were combined from the 2001 Children's Leisure Activities Study (CLAS Study) and 2002/3 Health, Eating and Play Study (HEAP Study), involving 2520 children in Grades Prep (mean age 6 years) and 5-6 (mean age 11 years) in Melbourne, Australia. Children's body mass index (BMI) was calculated from measured height and weight. Weight status (non-overweight or overweight) was determined according to International Obesity Taskforce cut-off points and BMI was transformed to z-scores based on the 2000 US growth chart data. Parents reported family circumstance (number of parents in the home, marital status, presence of siblings, parental education, parental employment status, parental work hours [HEAP Study only]) and parental BMI. Regression analyses were conducted for the sample overall and separately for young girls, young boys, older girls and older boys. Children in single-parent homes, those without siblings, and those with less educated mothers and fathers tended to have higher z-BMIs (p=0.002, p=0.003, p<0.001 and p<0.001, respectively) and were more likely to be overweight (p=0.003, p<0.001, p<0.001 and p=0.02, respectively). Associations were stronger for older children. Parental employment and work hours were not consistently associated with child weight status. The multivariable models did not demonstrate a cumulative explanatory effect (R2=0.02), except when maternal BMI was included (R2=0.07). Individual measures of family circumstance were differentially associated with child weight status and appeared to be largely independent of other measures of family circumstance. Childhood overweight interventions may need to be tailored based on the age, gender, maternal BMI and family circumstances of the target group.

Urban–rural comparison of weight status among women and children living in socioeconomically disadvantaged neighbourhoods

Objective: To compare the weight status of women and children living in socioeconomically disadvantaged rural and urban neighbourhoods in Victoria.

Design, setting and participants: Cross-sectional study of data collected between August 2007 and July 2008 as part of the Resilience for Eating and Activity Despite Inequality (READI) study. Women aged 18–45 years living in 40 rural and 40 urban socioeconomically disadvantaged Victorian areas were surveyed by postal questionnaire. Data from a subset of their children aged 5–12 years were also analysed. Weight and height were self-reported for women and measured for children.

Main outcome measures: Women’s weight status based on body mass index (BMI): underweight; healthy; overweight; or obese Class I, II or III; children’s weight status based on International Obesity Taskforce BMI cut-off points.

Results: Of 11 940 women randomly selected, 4934 (41%) replied to a postal invitation to participate. After exclusions for various reasons, data were available on 3879 women and 636 of their children. Twenty-four per cent of urban and 26% of rural women were classified as overweight; a further 19% of urban and 23% of rural women were classified as obese. Twenty per cent of both urban and rural children were classified as overweight; a further 10% of urban and rural children were classified as obese. In crude analyses, rural women had higher odds of Class I and II obesity (odds ratio [OR], 1.34 and 1.72, respectively) compared with urban women. After adjusting for sociodemographic factors (age, number of children, country of birth, education level, employment status and marital status), there was no difference between urban and rural women in odds of overweight or obesity Class I, II or III. No significant urban–rural difference in odds of overweight/obesity was evident among children.

Conclusions: The higher prevalence of obesity in rural women compared with urban women was largely explained by individual-level sociodemographic factors, such as age, number of children, country of birth, education level, employment status and marital status. This suggests that higher obesity levels among women in rural areas may be attributable to the sociodemographic composition of these areas.

The association between socioeconomic status and osteoporotic fracture in population-based adults : a systematic review

Summary : Although socioeconomic status (SES) is inversely related to most diseases, this systematic review showed a paucity of good quality data examining influences of SES on osteoporotic fracture to confirm this relationship. Further research is required to elucidate the issue and any underlying mechanisms as a necessary precursor to considering intervention implications.

Introduction : The association between socioeconomic status (SES) and musculoskeletal disease is little understood, despite there being an inverse relationship between SES and most causes of morbidity. We evaluated evidence of SES as a risk factor for osteoporotic fracture in population-based adults.

Methods : Computer-aided search of Medline, EMBASE, CINAHL, and PsychINFO from January 1966 until November 2007 was conducted. Identified studies investigated the relationship between SES parameters of income, education, occupation, type of residence and marital status, and occurrence of osteoporotic fracture. A best-evidence synthesis was used to summarize the results.

Results : Eleven studies were identified for inclusion, which suggested a lack of literature in the field. Best evidence analysis identified strong evidence for an association between being married/living with someone and reduced risk of osteoporotic fracture. Limited evidence exists of the relationship between occupation type or employment status and fracture, or for type of residence and fracture. Conflicting evidence exists for the relationship between osteoporotic fracture and level of income and education.

Conclusion : Limited good quality evidence exists of the role SES might play in osteoporotic fracture. Further research is required to identify whether a relationship exists, and to elucidate underlying mechanisms, as a necessary precursor to considering intervention implications.

Family support and ease of access link socio-economic status and sports club membership in adolescent girls : a mediation study

Background Much research has been conducted into the determinants of physical activity (PA) participation among adolescent girls. However, the more specific question of what are the determinants of particular forms of PA participation, such as the link between participation through a sports club, has not been investigated. Accordingly, the aim of this study was to investigate the relationships between participation in a sports club and socio-economic status (SES), access to facilities, and family and peer support, for female adolescents.

Methods A survey of 732 female adolescent school students (521 metropolitan, 211 non-metropolitan; 489 Year 7, 243 Year 11) was conducted. The survey included demographic information (living arrangements, ethnicity indicators, and indicators of SES such as parental education and employment status and locality); access to facilities; and family and peer support (travel, encouragement, watching, praise, joint participation). For each characteristic, sports club participants and non-participants were compared using chi-square tests. Multiple mediation analyses were used to investigate the role of access, family and peer support in the link between SES and sport participation.

Results There were significant associations (p<0.05) between sports club participation and: all demographic characteristics; all measures of family and peer support; and access to sport-related facilities. Highest levels of participation were associated with monolingual Australian-born families, with two parents, at least one of whom was well-educated, with both parents employed, and high levels of parental assistance, engagement and support. Participation in club sport among both younger and older adolescent girls was significantly positively associated with the SES of both their neighbourhoods and their households, particularly in metropolitan areas. These associations were most strongly mediated by family support and by access to facilities.

Conclusions To facilitate and promote greater participation in club sport among adolescent girls from low SES neighbourhoods and households, strategies should target modifiable determinants such as facility access and parental support. This will involve improving access to sports facilities and promoting, encouraging and assisting parents to provide support for their daughters’ participation in sport clubs.

Does disability status modify the association between psychosocial job quality and mental health? A longitudinal fixed-effects analysis

BACKGROUND: People with disabilities have difficulties in obtaining work. However, evidence suggests that those with disabilities derive substantial mental health benefits from employment. This paper assesses how the relationship between work and mental health is influenced by psychosocial job quality for people working with a disability. METHODS: The study design was a longitudinal cohort with 13 annual waves of data collection, yielding a sample of 122,883 observations from 21,848 people. Fixed-effects within-person regression was used to control for time invariant confounding. The Mental Component Summary (MCS) of the Short Form 36 (SF-36) measure was used as the primary outcome measure. The main exposure was a six-category measure of psychosocial job quality and employment status (including 'not in the labour force' [NILF] and unemployment). Disability status ('no waves of disability reported' and 'all contributed waves with reported disability') was assessed as an effect modifier. We also conducted a secondary analysis on respondents contributing both disability and non-disability waves. RESULTS: For those with no disability, the greatest difference in mental health (compared to optimal employment) occurs when people have the poorest quality jobs (-2.12, 95% CI -2.48, -1.75, p < 0.001). The relative difference in mental health was less in relation to NILF and unemployment (-0.39 and -0.66 respectively). For those with consistent disability, the difference in mental health when employed in an optimal job was similar between the poorest quality jobs (-2.25, 95% CI -3.84, -0.65, p = 0.006), NILF (-2.84, 95% CI -4.49, -1.20, p = 0.001) or unemployment (-2.56, 95% CI -4.32, -0.80, p = 0.004). These results were confirmed by the secondary analysis. CONCLUSIONS: Efforts to improve psychosocial job quality may have significant mental health benefits for people with disabilities. This will contribute to the economic viability of disability employment insurance schemes in Australia and other high-income countries.

Factors related to employment among chronically mentally ill patients

A descriptive study of demographic and psychosocial factors believed to be associated with employment was carried out through face-to-face interviews with 417 chronically mentally-ill patients. Subjects had been hospitalized a minimum of two times for psychiatric treatment, had been discharged from at least one of these hospitalizations in the two years prior to the study, and were currently residing within a specific community mental health center catchment area in Texas. The study group ranged in age from 16 to 68 years and over one-half had chart diagnoses of schizophrenia.^ A structured interview was developed which addressed current employment status, length of current employment, job title of current or last job, and detailed work history for the prior five years. Four measures of social support were included in the interview. Each subject was asked to identify one recent work and one recent non-work situation which had been stressful or very demanding. A coping questionnaire was verbally administered to measure the ways in which subjects had coped with these specific stressful situations.^ Analysis of results revealed that 27 percent of the sample was gainfully employed at time of interview. Differences between the employed and unemployed groups were analyzed by t-test an chi square. The employed demonstrated significantly more weeks of employment in the prior five years than the unemployed. The current jobs of the employed required a significantly higher relationship to "things" or inanimate objects than the last jobs of the unemployed. Subjects diagnosed as schizophrenic were significantly less likely to be employed than subjects with other diagnoses.^ Employed subjects scored significantly higher on three of four measures of social support than unemployed subjects, including reported frequency of social group attendance and/or meetings with mental health professionals. Problem-focused coping was used significantly more by the employed than by the unemployed to deal with stressful situations in the work, but not the non-work, context. ^

Social integration, health behaviors and health status among Mexican-American women in the *southwestern United States

Using the Hispanic Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (HHANES), this research examined several health behaviors and the health status of Mexican American women. This study focused on determining the relative impact of social contextual factors: age, socioeconomic status, quality of life indicators, and urban/rural residence on (a) health behaviors (smoking, obesity and alcohol use) and (b) health status (physician's assessment of health status, subject's assessment of health status and blood pressure levels). In addition, social integration was analyzed. The social integration indicators relate to an individual's degree of integration within his/her social group: marital status, level of acculturation (a continuum of traditional Mexican ways to dominant U.S. cultural ways), status congruency, and employment status. Lastly, the social contextual factors and social integration indicators were examined to identify those factors that contribute most to understanding health behaviors and health status among Mexican American women.^ The study found that the social contextual factors and social integration indicators proved to be important concepts in understanding the health behaviors. Social integration, however, did not predict health status except in the case of the subject's assessment of health status. Age and obesity were the strongest predictors of blood pressure. The social contextual factors and obesity were significant predictors of the physician's assessment of health status while acculturation, education, alcohol use and obesity were significant predictors of the subject's assessment of health status. ^

Family, work and health - The impact of marriage, parenthood and employment on self-reported health of Australian men and women

We investigate multiple-burden and multiple-attachment hypotheses for the association among marriage, parenthood, employment and health for Australian men and women. Using longitudinal data from the Australian panel survey, 'Negotiating the Lifecourse', we find that men and women employed full time report better health than those employed part time or not employed. Previously married women report worse health than married women, but there is no association between marital status and health for men. We also find that men with preschool children in the household report worse health than men with older children, whereas women with preschool children report better health than women with older children. In addition for women we find evidence of a role-burden where combining full-time employment and children has a negative impact on health, but combining children with part-time or no employment has a beneficial health effect. There are no health effects of combining roles for men.

Anxiety among high school students in India : comparisons across gender, school type, social strata, and perceptions of quality time with parents

The broad objective of the study was to better understand anxiety among adolescents in Kolkata city, India. Specifically, the study compared anxiety across gender, school type, socio-economic background and mothers’ employment status. The study also examined adolescents’ perceptions of quality time with their parents. A group of 460 adolescents (220 boys and 240 girls), aged 13-17 years were recruited to participate in the study via a multi-stage sampling technique. The data were collected using a self-report semi-structured questionnaire and a standardized psychological test, the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Results show that anxiety was prevalent in the sample with 20.1% of boys and 17.9% of girls found to be suffering from high anxiety. More boys were anxious than girls (p<0.01). Adolescents from Bengali medium schools were more anxious than adolescents from English medium schools (p<0.01). Adolescents belonging to the middle class (middle socio-economic group) suffered more anxiety than those from both high and low socio-economic groups (p<0.01). Adolescents with working mothers were found to be more anxious (p<0.01). Results also show that a substantial proportion of the adolescents perceived they did not receive quality time from fathers (32.1%) and mothers (21.3%). A large number of them also did not feel comfortable to share their personal issues with their parents (60.0% for fathers and 40.0% for mothers).

Identifying the presence of psychopathy in the community

Aim: Researchers have suggested that approximately 1% of individuals with psychopathic tendencies can successfully function within the community, although there has been a lack of research to support this claim. The current study aimed to identify individuals with psychopathic tendencies within a community sample and furthermore the socio-demographic correlates of this community integrated psychopath (e.g. relationship stability, substance use, and employment status). Procedure: 300 participants completed the Self-Reported Psychopathy scale – version 3 which contains four core psychopathy subfactors: (a) Interpersonal Manipulation, (b) Callous Affect, (c) Erratic Lifestyle and (d) Criminal Tendencies as well as the Paulhus Deception Scales to explore the effect of impression management and self-deception on the identification of psychopathy. Findings: Results indicated that at least 1% of the current community displayed characteristics consistent with psychopathic tendencies. A series of bivariate and multivariate statistical analyses were conducted which indicated that gender, age and alcohol misuse were predictive of psychopathy scores for this sample. More specifically, younger males who tend to misuse alcohol were found to be most likely to have psychopathic tendencies. Interestingly, impression management and self-deception was not associated with such tendencies. Discussion: The results provide some support for the assertion that individuals with psychopathic tendencies can be identified within the community (regardless of impression management techniques) and that such tendencies are associated with specific socio-demographic characteristics.

Immigration distress and associated factors among Vietnamese momen in transnational marriages in Taiwan

The purpose of this study was to explore the types and predictors of immigration distress among Vietnamese women in transnational marriages in Taiwan. A cross-sectional survey with face-toface interviews was conducted for data collection. A convenient sample of 203 Vietnamese women in transnational marriages in southern Taiwan was recruited. The Demographic Inventory measured the participants’ age, education, employment status, religion, length of residency and number of children, as well as their spouse’s age, education, employment status and religion. The Demand of Immigration Specific Distress scale measured the level of distress and had six subscales: loss, novelty, occupational adjustment, language accommodation, discrimination and alienation. Among the 203 participants, 6.4% had a high level of immigration distress; 91.1% had moderate distress; and 2.5% had minor distress. Higher mean scores were found for the loss, novelty and language accommodation subscales of the Demand of Immigration specific Distress scale. Participant’s (r = 0.321, p < 0.01) and spouse’s (r = 0.375, p < 0.01) unemployment, and more children (r = 0.129, p < 0.05) led to greater immigration distress. Length of residency in Taiwan (r = 0.576, p < 0.001) was an effective predictor of immigration distress. It indicated that the participants who had stayed fewer years in Taiwan had a higher level of immigrant distress. Health care professionals need to be aware that the female newcomers in transnational marriages are highly susceptible to immigration distress. The study suggests that healthcare professionals need to provide a comprehensive assessment of immigration distress to detect health problems early and administer culturally appropriate healthcare for immigrant women in transnational marriages.

Work-Related Subjective Experiences, Work-Related Self-Efficacy, and Career Learning Among People with Psychiatric Disabilities

Work-related subjective experiences and work-related self-efficacy were investigated as candidate correlates of career learning among people with schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder. Work-related self-efficacy was expected to mediate any observed relationship between work-related subjective experiences and employment status, after controlling for demographic, vocational, and clinical covariates. Baseline measures (n 1 = 104) were repeated at six months (n 2 = 94) and 12 months (n 3 = 94). Work-related subjective experiences and work-related self-efficacy were consistently associated with current employment after controlling for covariates. The proposed mediator role of work-related self-efficacy remains a viable hypothesis requiring further investigation. Both work-related subjective experiences and work-related self-efficacy appear promising as components of the social cognitive career learning theory to help explain career development among people with psychiatric disabilities.