Suomalaisten yritysten vapaaehtoinen sosiaalinen vastuu : Sidosryhmäviitekehys yritysten ja ulkoisten sidosryhmien edustajien näkemyksissä

Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is no longer only an issue of companies but a concern shared by e.g. the European Union, the International Labour Organization, labour market organizations and many others. This thesis examines what kind of voluntary corporate social responsibility exceeding the minimum level set in the legislation can be expected from the Finnish companies. The research was based on the interviews of some representatives of Finnish companies and of external stakeholders. Earlier Finnish empirical research on the topic has solely analysed the stakeholder thinking and the ethics of the views of the company representatives. The views of the external stakeholders brought ht up a much more versatile perspective on the voluntary corporate social responsibility of the companies. That is the particular surplus value of this research. This research, founded on stakeholder thinking, evaluated what kind of starting points and ideas on responsibility the views of the representatives of the companies and the external stakeholders were based on the voluntary social responsibility. Furthermore, the research also investigated how their views about the corporate social responsibility indicated the benefits achieved on the cooperative actions with different partners - for example companies, communities and public administration. To fulfil the aims of the research, the following questions were used as part tasks in mapping the basic foundations and starting points expressed by the representatives of the companies and the external stakeholders: 1) How do laws, directions concerning social responsibility of companies, and opinions and demands of the stakeholders guide and affect the voluntary corporate social responsibility? 2) How can companies assume voluntary corporate social responsibility in addition to their core functions and without compromising their profitability, and how does, for example, the tightening competition affect the possibility of taking responsibility? 3) What kind of ethic and moral foundations is the corporate social responsibility based on? 4) What kind of roles can companies have in securing and promoting the well-being of citizens in Finland and on the global market as one subsystem of the society? The views on the voluntary corporate social responsibility of nine big companies, one medium-sized company and one small company, all considered responsible pioneer companies, were studied with surveys and half-structured theme interviews between 2003 and 2004. The research proceeded as a theory-bounded study. The empirical material and the previous stakeholder thinking theories (Takala 2000b, Vehkaperä 2003) guided the thesis and worked abductively in interplay with each other during the research process. (Tuomi, Sarajärvi 2002.) The aims and the methods of the research and the themes of the interviews were defined on the basis of that information. The aims of the research were surveyed qualitatively with the strategy of a multiple case study. Representatives from nine big peer companies and nine external stakeholders were interviewed with half-structured themes between 2004 and 2005. The external stakeholders and the peer companies were chosen with the "thinking" of theoretical replication by Yin, according to which the views of the representatives of those groups would differ from those of the pioneer companies and also from those of each others. The multiple case study supports analysing the internal cohesion of the views of different groups and comparing their differences, and it supports theoretical evaluation and theory-building as well. (Yin 2003.) Another reason for choosing the external stakeholders was their known cooperation with companies. The spoken argumentations of the company and stakeholder representatives on the voluntary social responsibility of the companies were analysed and interpreted in the first place with an analytic discourse analysis, and the argumentations were classified allusively into the stakeholder discourses in three of the part tasks. In the discourse analysis, argumentations of the speech is seen to be intervowen with cultural meanings. (Jokinen, Juhila 1999.) The views of the representatives of the pioneer companies and the external stakeholders were more stakeholder-orientated than the views of the representatives of the peer companies. For the most part, the voluntary corporate social responsibility was seemingly targeted on single, small cooperation projects of the companies and external stakeholders. The pioneer companies had more of those projects, and they were participating in the projects more actively than the peer companies were. The significant result in this research was the notion that, in particular, the representatives of the pioneer companies and external stakeholders did not consider employing and paying taxes to be enough of reciprocal corporate social responsibility. However, they still wanted to preserve the Finnish welfare model, and the interviewees did not wish major changes in the present legislation or the social agreements. According to this study, the voluntary corporate social responsibility is motivated by ethical utilitarianism which varied from very narrow to very wide in relation to benefits achieved by companies and stakeholders (Velasquez 2002, Lagerspetz 2004). Compared with the peer companies, more of the representatives of the pioneer companies and of external stakeholders estimated that companies in their decision-making and operations considered not only the advantages and the benefits of the owners and other internal stakeholders, but also those of the external stakeholders and of the whole society. However, all interviewees expressed more or less strongly that the economic responsibility guides the voluntary responsible actions of the companies in the first place. This kind of utilitarian foundation of behaviour appeared from this research was named as business-orientated company moral. This thesis also presents a new voluntary corporate social responsibility model with four variables on the stakeholder discourses and their distinctive characteristics. The utilitarian motivation of a company s behaviour on their operations has been criticized on the grounds that the end justifies the means. It has also been stated that it is impossible to evaluate the benefits of the utilitarian type of actions to the individuals and the society. It is expected however that companies for their part promote the material and immaterial well-being of the individuals on the global, national and local markets. The expectations are so strong that if companies do not take into account the ethical and moral values, they can possibly suffer significant financial losses. All stakeholders, especially consumers, can with their own choices promote the responsible behaviour of the companies. Key words: voluntary corporate social responsibility, external stakeholders, corporate citizenship, ethics and morality, utilitarianism, stakeholder discourses, welfare society, globalisation

The Philosophical Age. Almanac. Issue 36. The Northern Lights

keywords: Enlightenment, Northern countries, Finland, Russia, Scotland In the 36 th edition of the almanac "Philosophical Age" published materials of international symposium «The Northern Lights - Facets of Enlightenment Culture», (held September 25-26, 2009) in The Aleksanteri Institute the University of Helsinki. Contents: Vesa Oittinen Between Radicalism and Utilitarianism — On the Profile of the Finnish Enlightenment Tatiana Artemyeva The Status of Intellectual Values in the Russian Enlightenment Oili Pulkkinen The Cosmopolitan Experience, Theoretical Histories and the Universal Science of the Scottish Enlightenment Аlla Zlatopolskaya L’autocritique des Lumières chez Rousseau et le rousseauisme russe Johannes Remy Alexander Radishchev, Ethical Consuming, and North American Quakers Kimmo Sarje Anders Chydenius and Radical Swedish Enlightenment Johan Sten Anders Johan Lexell: A Finnish Astronomer at St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences and His European Contacts Mikhail Mikeshin A Russian Adam Smith in French Style: An Example of the Transfer of Ideas Larisa Agamalian The Library of an Enlightened Russian Landowner

Problemas y tendencias culturales contemporáneas : el rechazo de la maternidad y la familia

La institución familiar tradicional y la maternidad en su sentido natural atraviesan, desde hace un tiempo, una crisis provocada por el individualismo, el relativismo y el utilitarismo predominantes en la sociedad posmoderna. Aquí la autora expone esta problemática y sugiere consideraciones a tener en cuenta en el intento de renovar a la familia desde su raíz natural, en apertura al plan divino y a fin de desempeñar su función esencial que es ser patrimonio común de la Humanidad.

Relacionamentos no capricho: as metáforas conceptuais dos amores juvenis

Reconhecendo a pluralidade das representações acerca dos relacionamentos amorosos, o presente estudo tem como objetivo verificar o conceito de amor existente em produção impressa, averiguando se há uma forma de relacionar-se privilegiada atualmente por instrumento midiático voltado para a juventude. Para tanto, conta com as contribuições da Linguística Cognitiva, em especial da Teoria da Metáfora Conceptual (Lakoff e Johnson, 1980 e 1999; Kövecses, 2000, 2002 e 2005), estabelecendo um diálogo desta com estudos da Sociologia e da Antropologia (Giddens, 1993; Bauman, 2001, 2004 e 2005; Almeida e Tracy, 2003; Araújo e Castro; 1977; Rezende e Coelho, 2010, entre outros) que têm como foco as emoções e/ou os relacionamentos amorosos. Anteriormente contemplada como mero ornamento da linguagem, a metáfora passa a ser considerada um fenômeno cognitivo, fruto das experiências compartilhadas por um determinado grupo de pessoas. Desse modo, seu estudo possibilita um melhor entendimento sobre os seres humanos e seus sentimentos, e auxilia a enxergar criticamente como grupos sociais enquadram o mundo. No processo de análise das metáforas e dos modos de conceptualização do amor, foram fundamentais os estudos sócio-antropológicos mencionados, os quais permitiram uma visualização mais ampla dos comportamentos amorosos contemporâneos. O corpus foi constituído por artigos da Revista Capricho, selecionados durante doze meses, que trataram sobre relacionamentos amorosos. Nas edições consideradas, as metáforas indicavam, em sua maioria, a conceptualização do amor a partir de um negócio e de uma viagem, confirmando a visão de uma sociedade pautada pelas relações de mercado e utilitarista, assim como o imperativo do movimento ao que os jovens, em especial, encontram-se submetidos. Houve também espaço para outras conceptualizações, nas quais, igualmente, os relacionamentos se mostram fluidos, imediatistas, com validade até o momento em que houver conveniência. Assumir um compromisso significaria abrir mão de um prazer imediato e da liberdade individual em função do outro, um risco muito grande, que não vale a pena a ser corrido diante da incerteza do futuro

Entre mapas e moças do tempo: informação e entretenimento na meteorologia do Jornal Nacional e do Rural Notícias

Este trabalho é um estudo sobre a mistura que se estabelece entre informação meteorológica e entretenimento nos quadros da previsão do tempo de dois telejornais nacionais das Organizações Globo: Jornal Nacional JN (canal aberto Rede Globo) e Rural Notícias RN (canal fechado Canal Rural). A recepção dos programas sobre o tempo é analisada a partir de entrevistas abertas, com 40 espectadores de ambos os noticiários, habitantes da cidade e do campo. Também por meio de entrevistas, são avaliadas as representações da produção, privilegiando as denominadas moças do tempo, Flávia Freire (JN) e Lilian Lima (RN). Auxiliam na identificação do entretenimento, nos espaços da meteorologia, a observação do surgimento do consumidor moderno, a extensão do consumo ao lazer, o divertimento pela televisão, o tempo como assunto para conversa, as representações do corpo na cultura brasileira e traços da educação na transmissão meteorológica no Telejornalismo do país. Assim, são analisados os formatos dos quadros do tempo, suas funções aparentes, formatações, imagem corporal construída de suas apresentadoras e o público-alvo de cada telejornal. Esses principais pontos são relacionados com o pensamento de autores que estudam comunicação, tempo, hedonismo, utilitarismo, consumo, representações sociais, corpo, educação e pedagogia. A previsão da meteorologia aparece com várias funções, sendo dominantes a ênfase no cotidiano, em ambos os jornais; o foco no lazer, sobretudo no Jornal Nacional; e o destaque para o vínculo com a produção rural em sentido amplo, no caso do Rural Notícias.

Genealogia do atomismo

Esta dissertação propõe-se a trabalhar com a questão da individualidade no ocidente. Sendo este problema muito amplo, busca-se restringir a questão a duas conceituações: o atomismo concebido de forma geral por Charles Taylor e a genealogia segundo Michel Foucault. Ambos os conceitos são formas de dar um melhor entendimento ao movimento utilitarista dos séculos XVIII e XIX, principalmente tendo um enfoque nas obras de Jeremy Bentham e John Stuart Mill. O atomismo é um problema teórico que busca integrar, de forma relativamente polêmica, até mesmo confundindo, a moral social à moral individual. O utilitarismo resolve tal dilema de duas formas: pela economia e pela política dizendo que a última está em função da primeira e que ambas direcionam-se à busca da felicidade e/ou do prazer. A genealogia é uma metodologia que permite pensar a história como ruptura e descontinuidade, ou seja, um aprofundamento histórico sobre as relações de poder que formam as conceituações. A interpretação da fuga política e econômica do utilitarismo será vista na teoria do poder formulada por Foucault. Espera-se que, assim, o trabalho consiga ter uma visão crítica da individualidade, a partir das ideias de um movimento moderno que foi essencial para a teoria política. De um lado, a preocupação histórica com um movimento dos séculos XVIII e XIX. Do outro lado, uma discussão de poder, histórica, sobre estes períodos na obra de Foucault. Trata-se, portanto, de uma dissertação que busca construir uma genealogia do atomismo a partir das obras de Charles Taylor e Michel Foucault.

A concepção de liberdade civil utilitarista em John Stuart Mill e suas contribuições

A vida impõe decisões às pessoas o tempo todo, e as pessoas as tomam de acordo com seus valores considerando as particularidades de cada situação. Valo-res são quaisquer aspectos da decisão que sejam considerados desejáveis, indese-jáveis, relevantes e importantes como: ser preferido, desejável, agradável, promis-sor, seguro, emocionante, justo, bom, correto, fácil, incerto, etc. Com base nestes valores, entendemos que o fundamento último do utilitarismo é o princípio da maximização da felicidade. Segundo esta concepção, uma ação é considerada correta, logo válida, se ela promover maior felicidade dos implicados. A felicidade é entendida como o alcance do prazer e do bem-estar. Nesta corrente encontramos uma perspectiva eudamonista e hedonista, uma vez que tem em vista como objectivo final a felicidade que consiste no prazer. Qualquer utilitarista tem de se importar, sobretudo com a promoção da felicidade geral. A partir de Mill, a moralidade passa a ser realização de cada ser humano neste mundo, aqui e agora. O princípio de utilidade exige que cada um de nós faça o que for necessário e estiver ao seu alcançe para promover a felicidade e evitar a dor. Ao analisarmos as consequências previsíveis de uma ação, temos que considerar não apenas a quantidade, mas a qualidade de prazer que dela possa resultar. Para os utilitaristas o que importa são as consequências das ações, elas devem visar ao prazer, e somente isso permite avaliar se uma ação é correta ou não, logo é uma perspectiva consequencialista. O que importa são as consequências e não os motivos das nossas ações, desde que isso promova a felicidade ao maior número de pessoas possível. Mas, o ato só é permissível se, e apenas se, maximiza imparcialmente o bem. A filosofia Utilitarista costuma dividir seus leitores. É exaltada por alguns, que defendem o mérito de ser um ponto de vista que oferece melhores subsídios para melhor lidarmos com as questões éticas que realmente importam e estão associadas às condições que tornam possível uma vida feliz e se possível, isenta de sofrimentos. Por outro lado, há aqueles que apontam para o perigo de uma filosofia que estima a qualidade moral de ações levando em consideração apenas as suas consequências. Esta corrente não é uma escola filosófica, uma vez que se trata de uma filosofia que constantemente se reinventa e se adapta a fim de ir sempre ao encontro de novos desafios que uma ética não pode deixar de enfrentar.

Liberdade e individualismo no pensamento de J. S. Mill

A presente dissertação constitui uma investigação no campo da filosofia moral moderna, acerca do surgimento de um traço constitutivo das principais teorias morais modernas: o individualismo. Esse conceito é examinado, principalmente, à luz da filosofia prática de John Stuart Mill. A investigação inicia-se com a análise da emergência da moderna tradição dos direitos naturais, surgida com o escopo de equacionar os dilemas morais advindos de um contexto histórico-cultural particular. Em seguida, investiga-se o surgimento da tradição moral utilitarista e sua crítica ao moderno jusnaturalismo. A seguir, analisa-se como o próprio utilitarismo, contudo, torna-se objeto de críticas que incidem sobre o que seria a) a sua incapacidade de elaborar uma concepção de vida humana qualitativamente distinta da vida de outros animais; e b) sobre a insuficiente consideração do utilitarismo pelas liberdades individuais. A dissertação investiga, pois, os esforços de Mill para fazer frente a tais críticas e, assim, "redescrever" a tradição utilitarista. As tentativas de Mill de responder às críticas feitas ao utilitarismo o afastam da formulação clássica dessa escola de pensamento. Mill torna-se, assim, um utilitarista sui generis. A presente dissertação sugere que Mill, ao objetivar resguardar o utilitarismo das críticas que esta tradição recebera, elabora uma das mais influentes teorias morais individualistas da contemporaneidade.

组织中的规则行为：合法性、个体差异的认同-内化作用

This study employed the compliance, identification, and internalization model of attitude change to explore the mechanism of rule-following behaviors in organizations. The objectives of this study were to examine the effects of individual utilitarianism and formalism on rule compliance, deference and rule-breaking behaviors, and the relationships between legitimacy, organizational identification, and value internalization. I surveyed 262 employees from a high-tech corporation in Beijing. After Confirmative Factor Analysis, Regression Analysis, and Structural Equation Modeling, I summarized main conclusions as follow. First, rule legitimacy and organizational identification have different effects on different rule behaviors. Perceived rule legitimacy and organizational identification have direct positive effect on rule deference. But the effects of legitimacy on rule-compliance and rule-breaking are moderated by organizational identification and value internalization. Only under high identification or value congruence with organization, could legitimacy perception predict rule compliance and breaking. Second, individual formalism (IF) has positive effect on rule compliance. IF’s positive effect on rule deference only appear under high value congruence between individuals and organization. Third, organizational identification works as a “valve” in the relationship between individual viewpoints and rule-breaking. Organizational identification turns off the tendency of utilitarianism to break rules, and turns on the tendency of formalism to inhibit rule-breaking. Forth, attitudinal and behavioral facets of utilitarianism and formalism have different influences on rule-following behaviors. Only individuals who are both attitudinal and behavioral formalists show deference to rules, while formalism as behavioral tendency predicts less rule-breaking. Fifth, innovation behaviors coexist independently with compliance and deference to rules. But the division between innovation and rule-breaking is obscure. Organizational identification facilitate both rule following and innovation. Sixth, women comply with rules more than men do, while men break more rules than women do. More aged people develop deeper identification with their organizations, and higher deference to rules. Individuals with higher education are fewer formalists, and accordingly defer to rules less and break more.

Synthetic biology: a utilitarian perspective

I examine the positive and negative features of synthetic biology (‘SynBio’) from a utilitarian ethical perspective. The potential beneficial outcomes from SynBio in the context of medicine are substantial; however it is not presently possible to predict precise outcomes due to the nascent state of the field. Potential negative outcomes from SynBio also exist, including iatrogenesis and bioterrorism; however it is not yet possible to quantify these risks. I argue that the application of a ‘precautionary’ approach to SynBio is ethically fraught, as is the notion that SynBio-associated knowledge ought to be restricted. I conclude that utilitarians ought to support a broadly laissez-faire stance in respect of SynBio.

Engaging in the Crooked Timbre of Humanity: Value Pluralism and Social work

The field of social work ethics is changing. While more established positions, such as utilitarianism and deontology, continue to influence social work thinking and practice, emergent approaches are taking hold, leading to a radical examination of social work as an ethical discipline. To contribute to this unfolding debate, this article examines Isaiah Berlin's notion of value pluralism and its contribution to social work. The argument proceeds by summarising and categorising some of the traditional and emergent theories shaping social work according to metaphors of the ‘head’ (the justice-oriented, rational approaches) and the ‘heart’ (the grounded, particularistic and care-focused approaches). Berlin's value pluralism is then adopted to contend that social work needs to hold both ‘head’ and ‘heart’ ethics in a vital equilibrium to generate the ethics of the ‘hand’ (i.e. the practical response to contested areas of need) and the ‘feet’ (the commitment to change and well-being). These metaphors are then mapped on to a decision-making process and applied to the fraught area of adoption without parental consent

Civic engagement and the arts and humanities: a UK perspective

Higher education in the UK is in a state of flux and this is having particular impact on the humanities. On the one hand the pressure to support a STEM agenda is seen by some as forcing higher education down a narrow economic agenda, while government requirements for assessing the social and economic impact of research has raised concerns about excessive utilitarianism and a downgrading of ‘disinterested enquiry’. This paper argues that these concerns may be misplaced. The research impact agenda has the potential to promote more socially engaged research and more democratic engagement in the creation and dissemination of knowledge. In the US concerns about the democratic role of higher education more often seem to focus on the student experience. By contrast, in the UK concerns about citizenship education and democratic participation more often focus on high school students, perhaps because university students are more likely to have a formal role in institutional governance. The paper concludes that the papers in this forum have a very American feel, but the issues they address resonate on a much wider scale.

Critical-Level Population Principles and the Repugnant Conclusion

Critical-level generalized-utilitarian population principles with positive critical levels pro-vide an ethically attractive way of avoiding the repugnant conclusion. We discuss the axiomatic foundations of critical-level generalized utilitarianism and investigate its rela-tionship to the sadistic and strong sadistic conclusions. A positive critical level avoids the repugnant conclusion. We demonstrate that, although no critical-level generalized-utilitarian principle can avoid both the repugnant and strong sadistic conclusions, princi-ples that avoid both have significant defects.

Harsanyi’s Social Aggregation Theorem : A Multi-Profile Approach with Variable-Population Extensions

This paper provides new versions of Harsanyi’s social aggregation theorem that are formulated in terms of prospects rather than lotteries. Strengthening an earlier result, fixed-population ex-ante utilitarianism is characterized in a multi-profile setting with fixed probabilities. In addition, we extend the social aggregation theorem to social-evaluation problems under uncertainty with a variable population and generalize our approach to uncertain alternatives, which consist of compound vectors of probability distributions and prospects.

The Possibility of Ordering Infinite Utility Streams

This paper revisits Diamond’s classical impossibility result regarding the ordering of infinite utility streams. We show that if no representability condition is imposed, there do exist strongly Paretian and finitely anonymous orderings of intertemporal utility streams with attractive additional properties. We extend a possibility theorem due to Svensson to a characterization theorem and we provide characterizations of all strongly Paretian and finitely anonymous rankings satisfying the strict transfer principle. In addition, infinite horizon extensions of leximin and of utilitarianism are characterized by adding an equity preference axiom and finite translation-scale measurability, respectively, to strong Pareto and finite anonymity.