Conversion equivalents in international trade; weights, measures, gauges, currencies, technical and special units in commerce and industry,

Mode of access: Internet.

L’exception de moralité publique dans les accords de l’OMC et son application dans le différend canado-européen sur la chasse au phoque

Parmi les critiques visant l'Organisation mondiale du commerce (OMC), il est souvent reproché à celle-ci d’accorder trop peu d’importance aux préoccupations non commerciales des consommateurs et des États, reflet de leurs valeurs sociétales ou culturelles, sous prétexte de lutter contre les entraves au commerce international. Pourtant, dans le domaine du commerce des marchandises, l’article XX du GATT prévoit certaines exceptions générales, permettant éventuellement aux États de justifier une mesure restrictive pour le commerce, notamment pour des raisons de protection de la moralité publique. Or, cette « exception de moralité publique », rarement invoquée à ce jour, est au cœur du différend commercial opposant actuellement le Canada à l’Union européenne, après l’embargo adopté en 2009 par celle-ci sur les produits issus de la chasse au phoque, considérée comme cruelle par de nombreux Européens. Dans ce mémoire, nous avons tenté d’envisager l’issue possible de ce litige. À cette fin, nous avons réalisé une étude préliminaire du concept de moralité publique en droit international public et présenté en détails le contexte, notamment politique, de ce différend; puis nous avons procédé à son analyse par étapes, selon la méthode retenue à ce jour par l’Organe de règlement des différends (ORD). À l’issue de nos réflexions, nous avons conclu que l’ORD devrait constater que la mesure européenne contestée vise à répondre à un réel souci de protection de la moralité publique en Europe; toutefois, il est probable, selon nous, que l’embargo européen ne soit pas considéré comme « nécessaire » à cette fin, au sens de l’article XX du GATT : en effet, l’ORD estimera sans doute que l’Union européenne aurait pu mettre en œuvre des solutions moins incompatibles avec ses obligations au titre du GATT. Nous pensons donc, hélas, que l’issue de ce litige ne satisfera pas ceux qui réclament une plus grande ouverture de l’OMC vis-à-vis de considérations non commerciales légitimes.

Le recours à des mesures restrictives du commerce international par l’État canadien comme moyen de lutte contre le travail dangereux des enfants

Cette thèse porte sur le recours à des mesures restrictives du commerce par le Canada comme moyen de lutte contre le travail dangereux des enfants, dans un contexte de mise en œuvre de la responsabilité internationale d’un État en cas de non respect de la Convention de l’Organisation internationale du travail nº 182 sur les pires formes de travail des enfants. Bien que la capacité d’imposer des telles mesures se rapportant à des situations de travail dangereux des enfants soit analysée, essentiellement, du point de vue du droit de l’Organisation internationale du commerce (OMC), cette étude reste circonscrite à l’application de la Convention OIT 182. De plus, cette thèse veut fournir une analyse prospective de nature spéculative portant sur l’opportunité de recourir à de telles mesures en discutant de leurs éventuelles conséquences sur les enfants qu’on vise à protéger par ce moyen. La première partie de la thèse s’intéresse à la légalité d’éventuelles sanctions commerciales imposées par le Canada afin d’amener un pays membre de l’OMC dont il importe des produits à respecter la Convention OIT 182. La légalité de ces sanctions est abordée tant du point de vue du régime général du GATT que de celui des exceptions générales. Du point de vue du régime général, l’analyse porte notamment sur l’article III de cet accord relatif au principe du traitement national. Une fois constatée leur illicéité à l’égard de l’article III du GATT, seul l’article XX de cet accord peut être invoqué pour permettre le recours à ces mesures. Nous nous attardons plus particulièrement aux exceptions de l’article XX relatives à la protection de la moralité publique et à celle de la protection de la vie et de la santé humaine. La thèse aborde les conditions auxquelles est assujetti le recours aux exceptions de l’article XX retenues comme pertinentes, notamment celles de la « nécessité » des mesures et du respect des compétences étatiques. En outre, cette étude analyse les conditions d’application des mesures restrictives du commerce découlant du préambule de l’article XX. En ce qui concerne l’exception relative à la moralité publique, cette notion est discutée dans un contexte national spécifique, soit celui du Canada. La seconde partie de la thèse s’intéresse à l’opportunité de recourir à des mesures commerciales restrictives et leurs conséquences éventuelles sur les enfants dont la protection est recherchée. La démarche, qui est éminemment prospective, prend la forme d’une étude de cas portant sur un secteur productif qui n’a jamais connu dans les faits des sanctions commerciales, soit la production floricole en Équateur. Il s’agit d’un secteur caractérisé par la présence d’enfants en situation de travail dangereux impliqués dans la production de biens destinés à l’exportation. Notre recherche est de type exploratoire. De ce fait, elle ne vise pas à formuler des conclusions fermes quant aux effets des sanctions, mais plutôt à déceler les effets potentiellement bénéfiques ou nuisibles que les mesures restrictives du commerce pourraient avoir sur les enfants exploités, ainsi qu’à évaluer la contribution des sanctions commerciales à la solution du problème.

Comércio internacional e meio ambiente: estímulo à produção sustentável ou mero protecionismo comercial a posição do Brasil em dois casos de litígio

The World Trade Organization (WTO) was established in 1994 as a result of the Uruguay Round, and has as its principal aim advocate for the maintenance of free trade between nations. The preamble of its Constitutive Agreement specifically cites as an institution the goal of achieving sustainable development and the pursuit of protecting and preserving the environment, bringing into the sphere of world trade the idea that concern for the environmental cause is not restricted only the group of environmentalists, but rather has entered the economic landscape in a way not only ideological, but also pragmatic. The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) 1947, part of the GATT 1994, contains a device that allows the adoption of trade restrictive measures, provided that such measures aimed at protecting the environment - Article XX. The Settlement Body (DSB) is part of the WTO and acts in dissolving disputes between the countries motivated by trade. It examines two cases where countries have imposed restrictive trade measures with environmental justification. The first case was closed in 1996, with award of damages given to Brazil, on the breakdown of U.S. environmental legislation imposed on imported gasoline from Brazil - and the second, begun in 2005 and closed in 2007, coming out victorious again Brazil is on the import ban on retreaded tires to Brazil. The objective is to answer the question: how the environment is treated in the midst of trade discussions - which is aimed at its protection or its use with economic objectives in disguise? For the preparation of this work, extensive documentary research was undertaken with the virtual site of the WTO to review the entire production of legal cases and subsequent analysis of the key issue for the work, and literature of authors who have studied the tense relationship between trade international environment. The first case, it could be seen that the political movement performed by the U.S. with the aim of achieving acceptable standards of air quality was an institutional effort to ensure the quality of air, and thus would be inappropriate to say that the regulation of gasoline was merely a disguised trade barrier.However, a careful analysis of the implementation and operation of gasoline regulation may reveal intentions disguised trade and U.S. environmental argument did not hold. The weight of this environment was relegated, since there were clearly outside interests to the environmental cause. The second case, it was realized that, despite clear attempts by the EC to promote ecological dumping, send when brought to Brazil, supposedly a country with weaker environmental structure on surveillance, a residue that, pursuant to internal policies, as could not be sent to their own landfills, the Brazilian discourse remained focused on the environmental cause, and this sort there was the existence of disguised trade barriers, but of importance, at least a priori, the discussion of foreign forces on the environment environment because there is no way to legally justify the reversal of the total understanding of the first judging body, the sight of all the arguments presented by Brazil and the nonsubmission of new facts upon appeal. Still, quite heartening to reflect on the role of trade liberalization on the environment in general, because, while they do not reach a definitive conclusion will reveal positions in both directions, both for and against, the that only adds to the discussions and makes this a very fertile topic for future research

The emergence of product certification systems as trade barriers

This paper addresses the growing difficulties automobile manufacturers face within their after sales business: an increasing number of trade obstacles set up by import countries discriminates against the foreign suppliers and impedes the international sales of genuine parts. The purpose of the study is to explore the emergence of trade restrictive product certification systems, which affect spare parts exports of automobile manufacturers. The methodology used includes review of the literature and an empirical study based on qualitative interviews with representatives of major stakeholders of the automotive after sales business. Relevant key drivers, which initiate the introduction of technical regulations in importing countries, are identified and analysed to evaluate their effect on the emerging trade policy. The analysis of the key drivers outlines that several interacting components, such as the global competitiveness of the country, macroeconomic and microeconomic factors, and certain country-specific variables induce trade restrictive product certification systems. The findings allow for an early detection of the emergence of product certification systems and provide a means to early recognise the risks and opportunities for the sales of automotive spare parts in the automakers’ target markets. This allows the manufacturers to react immediately and adapt in time to the upcoming changes.

Europe’s New Post-Trade Infrastructure Rules. ECMI Policy Brief No. 20, 8 November 2012

After more than a decade of indecision, the EU is finally now set to implement a consistent regulatory architecture for clearing and settlement. Following the agreement on a European market infrastructure Regulation (EMIR), the European Commission has proposed harmonised rules for centralised settlement depositaries (CSDs), while the European Central Bank is moving forward with its plans for a central eurozone settlement engine. This paper analyses three components of the new post-trade infrastructure measures: 1) the regulatory framework for and supervision of central counterparties under the new EMIR legislation, 2) the authorisation requirements of trade repositories and 3) the draft CSD Regulation and the progress with the ECB’s Target 2 Securities project. It then discusses the impact of the new rules, and argues that, analogous to the unexpected impact of MiFID on trading infrastructures, a similar EMIR revolution may be on its way.

Barriers to Latin American and Caribbean exports in the US market, 1998-1999

Includes bibliography

Trade, poverty and complementary policies in Latin America

Includes bibliography

Barriers to Latin American and Caribbean exports in the US market, 2000-2001

Includes bibliography

Access to Latin American and Caribbean exports in the U.S. market 2001-2002

Access to Latin American and Caribbean Exports in the United States market, 2001-2002 is the seventh annual report released by the ECLAC Washington Office, updating information contained in previous reports. Its aim is to compile and make available information on trade inhibiting measures that Latin American and Caribbean exports encounter in the United States market. This report needs to be placed in the context of a trade relationship between the United States and Latin America and the Caribbean, which has grown strongly over the years to the benefit of both economies. Moreover, it must be viewed against the background of the commitment to achieve the Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA), through which barriers to trade and investment will be progressively eliminated. In this regard, it is hoped that this report will further contribute to transparency and the elimination of obstacles to the free flow of trade in the Americas. The classification of trade inhibiting measures follows the definition used in the U.S. Trade Representatives (USTR) yearly publication National Trade Estimate Report on Foreign Trade Barriers. Based on this structure, the report focuses on the three areas of greatest relevance for Latin America and the Caribbean: Imports Policies (e.g., tariffs and other import charges, quantitative restrictions, import licensing, customs barriers). Standards, testing, labeling and certification (e.g., unnecessarily restrictive application of phytosanitary standards). Export subsidies (e.g., export financing on preferential terms and agricultural export subsidies that displace other foreign exports in third country markets).

Access of Latin American and Caribbean exports in the U.S. market 2002-2003

Access to Latin American and Caribbean Exports in the United States market, 2001-2002 is the eighth annual report released by the ECLAC Washington Office, updating information contained in previous reports. Its aim is to compile and make available information on trade inhibiting measures that Latin American and Caribbean exports encounter in the United States market. This report needs to be placed in the context of a trade relationship between the United States and Latin America and the Caribbean, which has grown strongly over the years to the benefit of both economies. Moreover, it must be viewed against the background of the commitment to achieve the Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA), through which barriers to trade and investment will be progressively eliminated. In this regard, it is hoped that this report will further contribute to transparency and the elimination of obstacles to the free flow of trade in the Americas. The classification of trade inhibiting measures follows the definition used in the U.S. Trade Representatives (USTR) yearly publication National Trade Estimate Report on Foreign Trade Barriers. Based on this structure, the report focuses on the three areas of greatest relevance for Latin America and the Caribbean: Imports Policies (e.g., tariffs and other import charges, quantitative restrictions, import licensing, customs barriers). Standards, testing, labeling and certification (e.g., unnecessarily restrictive application of phytosanitary standards). Export subsidies (e.g., export financing on preferential terms and agricultural export subsidies that displace other foreign exports in third country markets).

Access of Latin American and Caribbean exports to the US market 2003-2004

Includes bibliography

The Role of Technical Assistance in World Trade Organization (WTO) Trade Facilitation Negotiations

This issue of the Bulletin presents a brief review of trade facilitation negotiations from the specific viewpoint of technical assistance, capacity-building and special and differential treatment (SDT). Trade facilitation negotiations have focused on clarifying three articles of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT): article V (freedom of transit); article VIII (fees and formalities connected with importation and exportation); and article X (publication and administration of trade regulations). Although the stage of text-based negotiations has not yet been reached, the process of receiving and analysing proposals has made it possible to identify the aspects most urgently in need of correcting by means of trade facilitation measures. Consideration has been given to several formulas for the implementation of those measures and to how the associated technical assistance should be organized.

Trade facilitation and Central American integration: Customs modernization

The development of trade facilitation and regional integration is closely linked to the efficiency of public services and the competitiveness of the companies that support export activity. The importance of trade facilitation measures has been emphasized in various issues of the FAL Bulletin. On this occasion the subject is be discussed from the point of view of regional integration, and a case in Central America is considered of particular interest. El Salvador and Guatemala, by integrating their electronic systems for obtaining export licenses, have been able to reduce waiting times significantly. In Guatemala, in December 2000, there was a waiting time of 24 hours, whereas in November 2004 the procedure took 1.5 minutes via the Internet. This issue of the Bulletin is based on research into electronic government initiatives related to foreign trade, which is being conducted by the International Trade and Integration Division.

United States Trade Developments 2012-2013

Includes bibliography.