Libéralisation commerciale, développement financier et inégalités de revenu

Nous avons mené une étude empirique pour tester les conclusions théoriques d'un article de Foellmi et Oeschlin (2010), selon lesquelles la libéralisation commerciale accroît les inégalités de revenu dans les pays dont les marchés financiers sont affectés par des frictions. On réalise une régression sur des indices synthétiques de la distribution des revenus, de type Gini, de l’ouverture commerciale, en interaction avec un indicateur de disponibilité du crédit. On dispose d’un panel de pays en développement et de pays émergents, comprenant des données annuelles. Il apparaît que les signes de nos variables d’intérêts sont toujours cohérents avec l’analyse de Foellmi et Oeschlin, même après intégration de divers groupes de variables de contrôle et également lorsque les régressions sont effectuées sur des données agrégées par 5 ans. Néanmoins, les paramètres perdent en significativité pour certains groupes de variables de contrôle, certainement du fait de la faible qualité des données et de la taille relativement modeste de l’échantillon.

Bank market concentration, relationship banking and small business liquidity

This paper examines two contrasting interpretations of how bank market concentration (Market Power Hypothesis) and banking relationships (Information Hypothesis) affect three sources of small firm liquidity (cash, lines of credit and trade credit). Supportive of a market power interpretation, we find that in a highly concentrated banking market, small firms hold less cash, have less access to lines of credit, and are more likely to be financially constrained, use greater amounts of more expensive trade credit and face higher penalties for trade credit late payment. We also find support for the information hypothesis: relationship banking improves small business liquidity, particularly in a concentrated banking market, thereby mitigating the adverse effects of bank market concentration derived from market power. Our results are robust to different cash, lines of credit and trade credit measures and to alternative empirical approaches.

Processo para análise de seguro de crédito por empresas no Brasil

Este estudo tem como objetivo descrever e detalhar importante ferramenta de transferência de risco de crédito já disponível no mercado securitário, e propor um processo para que a mesma possa ser avaliada por empresas no Brasil. Apesar de pouco explorado no meio acadêmico e pouco difundido no Brasil, o Seguro de Crédito é muito utilizado em países da Europa e Ásia e pode ter importância fundamental em épocas de crise e no novo cenário econômico mundial. Descreve-se como o seguro de crédito está inserido no contexto de gerenciamento ativo de risco, os tipos de seguro disponível no mercado e os complexos parâmetros de uma apólice dessa natureza, os quais são derivados da necessidade de mitigação de riscos de moral hazard e de assimetria de informações por parte da seguradora. Apresenta-se também um resumo das principais metodologias existentes para precificação de risco de crédito, apontando suas vantagens, desvantagens e adaptações necessárias para a aplicação em empresas não financeiras. Por fim, é proposto um processo para avaliação e contratação do seguro de crédito por empresas no Brasil, o qual considera diversos aspectos que envolvem a realidade das operações e os impactos previstos pelo uso do seguro. Com base na teoria e nas características das apólices de seguro de crédito interno, buscou-se também desenvolver um modelo para avaliação da precificação do prêmio e dos parâmetros da apólice, sendo que sua aplicação é exposta nos exemplos ao final do trabalho.

Um ensaio em gestão de capital de giro em micros e pequenas empresas

Este estudo investiga as diferenças na maneira como gestores administram o capital de giro nas micro e pequenas empresas. As contribuições derivadas deste estudo ampliam a literatura financeira de curto prazo em MPEs no sentido de se compreender como os itens relacionados ao construto de capital de giro se comportam numa economia emergente, com fricções de mercado severas e mutáveis e com nível de desenvolvimento financeiro distinto. Os diferentes estilos de gestão podem ocorrer em razão do impacto do desenvolvimento e profundidade do mercado financeiro e do acesso e da oferta de trade credit. Os fatores determinantes desses estilos de condução da gestão do capital de giro em micro e pequenas empresas (MPEs) são identificados e, explicados, à luz dos fundamentos das teorias de crescimento das firmas por estágios, da visão baseada em recursos, de crédito comercial, de agência e de custos de transação. Esta é uma pesquisa mista com investigação cross-section, em três etapas. Ela foi composta por um survey e por entrevistas. Os dados obtidos por meio de um survey com dirigentes de 447 MPEs dos estados de Minas Gerais e São Paulo foram analisados por técnicas multivariadas, tendo sido identificados quatro “estilos” de gestão de capital de giro, que podem ser explicados por variáveis como idade, tamanho e lucratividade da firma e as entrevistas pela análise de conteúdo. A base de dados foi tratada com técnicas multivariadas e modelagem com equações estruturais. Os resultados sugerem que dirigentes brasileiros são mais propensos a adotar controle financeiro que os dirigentes britânicos e que gestão de crédito afeta positivamente a gestão de estoque quando mediada por fundos internos. Os resultados foram comparados aos obtidos por pesquisa similar realizada com empresas do Reino Unido (Howorth e Westhead, 2003), e a evidência mostra diferenças importantes: 1) as empresas brasileiras revisam a maioria das rotinas de capital de giro com maior frequência que as britânicas; 2) as MPEs brasileiras ofertam e demandam menos crédito comercial que as britânicas. Essas diferenças podem ser explicadas, pelo menos em parte, pelo maior custo do financiamento bancário das firmas brasileiras em comparação às britânicas.

Ensaios sobre os efeitos da internacionalização na estrutura de capital e estrutura de propriedade de multinacionais latino-americanas

Esta tese analisa três lacunas que ainda não foram discutidas na literatura. As lacunas dizem respeito aos efeitos da internacionalização na estrutura de capital e de propriedade de empresas multinacionais. Para tanto, três ensaios sobre os efeitos da internacionalização foram elaborados. O primeiro analisou os efeitos dos modos de entrada sobre o endividamento; o segundo os efeitos da internacionalização nas formas de endividamento e o terceiro os efeitos da internacionalização na estrutura de propriedade. A partir de dados de empresas multinacionais e domésticas de capital aberto latino-americanas de 2007 a 2011, foram montados painéis de dados com variáveis de teste e controle para cada ensaio. Os resultados do primeiro ensaio apontam que os modos de entrada são relevantes para determinar o nível de endividamento das multinacionais e complementam os resultados de trabalhos baseados na hipótese upstream-downstream. Evidenciou-se também que empresas com modos de entrada patrimoniais tendem a ser mais endividadas no longo prazo e total que empresas com modos de entrada não-patrimoniais, reforçando explicações dadas pela teoria do static trade-off; e menos endividadas no curto prazo, reforçando as explicações das teorias da agência e pecking order. Os resultados do segundo ensaio apontam que o grau de internacionalização: (i) aumenta o nível de endividamento da quase totalidade das dívidas providas por agentes financeiros (bancos), conforme a hipótese upstream-downstream e diminuem as dívidas providas por agentes não-financeiros (trade-credit), conforme teoria da restrição financeira; (ii) não produz efeitos sobre a maturidade das dívidas (iii) diferente do que esperava, não aumenta endividamento via banco nacional de desenvolvimento (empréstimos incentivados), (iv) foi relevante para alterar a composição do endividamento das multinacionais se comparada às empresas domésticas e (v) a forma de entrada na internacionalização não afeta a composição de endividamento. No terceiro ensaio o principal resultado encontrado foi que as empresas mais internacionalizadas e com modo de entrada patrimonial têm menores níveis de concentração de propriedade. Outro importante resultado do terceiro ensaio foi de que há uma simultaneidade ainda não explorada em estudos anteriores na determinação do nível de internacionalização e da concentração de propriedade. Ambos os resultados do terceiro ensaio estão amparados pela Visão Baseada em Recursos contrapondo a visão tradicional da teoria da agência.

Flexibility and firm value: the role of inventories

In the present thesis I study the contribution to firm value of inventories management from a risk management perspective. I find a significant contribution of inventories to the value of risk management especially through the operating flexibility channel. In contrast, I do not find evidence supporting the view of inventories a reserve of liquidity. Inventories substitute, albeit not perfectly, derivatives or cash holdings. The substitution between hedging with derivatives and inventory is moderated by the correlation between cash flow and the underlying asset in the derivative contract. Hedge ratios increase with the effectiveness of derivatives. The decision to hedge with cash holdings or inventories is strongly influenced by the degree of complementarity between production factors and by cash flow volatility. In addition, I provide a risk management based explanation of the secular substitution between inventories and cash holdings documented, among others, in Bates et al. (2009), Journal of Finance. In a sample of U.S. firms between 1980 and 2006, I empirically confirm the negative relation between inventories and cash and provide evidence on the poor performance of investment cash flow sensitivities as a measure of financial constraints also in the case of inventories investment. This result can be explained by firms' scarce reliance on inventories as a reserve of liquidity. Finally, as an extension of my study, I contrast with empirical data the theoretical predictions of a model on the integrated management of inventories, trade credit and cash holdings.

Achieving European Policy Objectives through Financial Technology. ECRI Commentary No. 17, 16 November 2015

Alistair Milne argues in this ECRI Commentary that ‘FinTech’ (newly emerging Financial Technologies) can play a crucial role in achieving European policy objectives in the area of financial markets. These notably include increasing access by smaller firms to trade credit and other forms of external finance and completing the banking and capital markets unions. He points out, however, that accomplishing these objectives will require a coordinated European policy response, focused especially on promoting common business processes and the adoption of shared technology and data standards.

Essays on firm behaviour in the euro area

This thesis examines firms' real decisions using a large panel of unquoted euro area firms over the period 2003-2011. To this end, this thesis is composed of five chapters in which three are the main empirical chapters. They assess the dimensions of firm behaviour across different specifications. Each of these chapters provide a detailed discussion on the contribution, theoretical and empirical background as well as the panel data techniques which are implemented. Chapter 1 describes the introduction and outline of the thesis. Chapter 2 presents an empirical analysis on the link between financial pressure and firms' employment level. In this set-up, it is explored the strength of financial pressure during the financial crisis. It is also tested whether this effect has a different impact for financially constrained and unconstrained firms in the periphery and non-periphery regions. The results of this chapter denote that financial pressure exerts a negative impact on firms' employment decisions and that this effect is stronger during the crisis for financially constrained firms in the periphery. Chapter 3 analyses the cash policies of private and public firms. Controlling for firm size and other standard variables in the literature of cash holdings, empirical findings suggest that private firms hold higher cash reserves than their public counterparts indicating a greater precautionary demand for cash by the former. The relative difference between these two type of firms decreases (increases) the higher (lower) is the the level of financial pressure. The findings are robust to various model specifications and over different sub-samples. Overall, this chapter shows the relevance of firms' size. Taken together, the findings of Chapter 3 are in line with the early literature on cash holdings and contradict the recent studies, which find that the precautionary motive to hold cash is less pronounced for private firms than for public ones. Chapter 4 undertakes an investigation on the relation between firms' stocks of inventories and trade credit (i.e. extended and taken) whilst controlling for the firms' size, the characteristics of the goods transacted, the recent financial crisis and the development of the banking system. The main findings provide evidence of a trade-off between trade credit extended and firms' stock of inventories. In other words, firms' prefer to extend credit in the form of stocks to their financially constrained customers to avoid holdings costly inventories and to increase their sales levels. The provision of trade credit by the firms also depends on the characteristics of the goods transacted. This impact is stronger during the crisis. Larger and liquid banking systems reduce the trade-off between the volume of stocks of inventories and the amount sold on credit. Trade credit taken is not affected by firms' stock of inventories. Chapter 5 presents the conclusions of the thesis. It provides the main contributions, implications and future research of each empirical chapter.

Amending the Export-import bank act of 1945 with respect to credit to Communist countries : hearings before the Subcommittee on International Trade, Investment, and Monetary Policy of the Committee on Banking, Finance, and Urban Affairs, House of Representatives, Ninety-sixth Congress, first session, on H.R. 1908 ... July 23 and 24, 1979.

"Serial no. 96-24."

Credit practices : final report to the Federal Trade Commission and proposed trade regulation rule (16 CFR part 444) /

"Staff report and recommendation on proposed trade regulation rule. 16 CFR part 444, public record 215-42."

Suggested resolutions : trade associations, transportation associations, banking and credit associations ...

Mode of access: Internet.

The law of unfair business competition, including chapters on trade secrets and confidential business relations; unfair interference with contracts; libel and slander of articles of merchandise, trade names, and business credit and reputation,

Mode of access: Internet.

Political Risk in Credit Evaluation: Empirical Studies and Survey Results

Financing trade between economic agents located in different countries is affected by many types of risks, resulting from incomplete information about the debtor, the problems of enforcing international contracts, or the prevalence of political and financial crises. Trade is important for economic development and the availability of trade finance is essential, especially for developing countries. Relatively few studies treat the topic of political risk, particularly in the context of international lending. This thesis explores new ground to identify links between political risk and international debt defaults. The core hypothesis of the study is that the default probability of debt increases with increasing political risk in the country of the borrower. The thesis consists of three essays that support the hypothesis from different angles of the credit evaluation process. The first essay takes the point of view of an international lender assessing the credit risk of a public borrower. The second investigates creditworthiness assessment of companies. The obtained results are substantiated in the third essay that deals with an extensive political risk survey among finance professionals in developing countries. The financial instruments of core interest are export credit guaranteed debt initiated between the Export Credit Agency of Finland and buyers in 145 countries between 1975 and 2006. Default events of the foreign credit counterparts are conditioned on country-specific macroeconomic variables, corporate-specific accounting information as well as political risk indicators from various international sources. Essay 1 examines debt issued to government controlled institutions and conditions public default events on traditional macroeconomic fundamentals, in addition to selected political and institutional risk factors. Confirming previous research, the study finds country indebtedness and the GDP growth rate to be significant indicators of public default. Further, it is shown that public defaults respond to various political risk factors. However, the impact of the risk varies between countries at different stages of economic development. Essay 2 proceeds by investigating political risk factors as conveivable drivers of corporate default and uses traditional accounting variables together with new political risk indicators in the credit evaluation of private debtors. The study finds links between corporate default and leverage, as well as between corporate default and the general investment climate and measeures of conflict in the debtor country. Essay 3 concludes the thesis by offering survey evidence on the impact of political risk on debt default, as perceived and experienced by 103 finance professionals in 38 developing countries. Taken together, the results of the thesis suggest that various forms of political risk are associated with international debt defaults and continue to pose great concerns for both international creditors and borrowers in developing countries. The study provides new insights on the importance of variable selection in country risk analysis, and shows how political risk is actually perceived and experienced in the riskier, often lower income countries of the global economy.