The Soviet Union, Finland and the Cold War : The Finnish Card in Soviet Foreign Policy, 1956-1959

From the Soviet point of view the actual substance of Soviet-Finnish relations in the second half of 1950s clearly differed from the contemporary and later public image, based on friendship and confidence rhetoric. As the polarization between the right and the left became more underlined in Finland in the latter half of the 1950s, the criticism towards the Soviet Union became stronger, and the USSR feared that this development would have influence on Finnish foreign policy. From the Soviet point of view, the security commitments of FCMA-treaty needed additional guarantees through control of Finnish domestic politics and economic relations, especially during international crises. In relation to Scandinavia, Finland was, from the Soviet point of view, the model country of friendship or neutrality policy. The influence of the Second Berlin Crisis or the Soviet-Finnish Night Frost Crisis in 1958-1959 to Soviet policy towards Scandinavia needs to be observed from this point of view. The Soviet Union used Finland as a tool, in agreement with Finnish highest political leadership, for weakening of the NATO membership of Norway and Denmark, and for maintaining Swedish non-alliance. The Finnish interest to EFTA membership in the summer of 1959, at the same time with the Scandinavian countries, seems to have caused a panic reaction in the USSR, as the Soviets feared that these economic arrangements would reverse the political advantages the country had received in Finland after the Night Frost Crisis. Together with history of events, this study observes the interaction of practical interests and ideologies, both in individuals and in decision-making organizations. The necessary social and ideological reforms in the Soviet Union after 1956 had influence both on the legitimacy of the regime, and led to contradictions in the argumentation of Soviet foreign policy. This was observed both in the own camp as well as in the West. Also, in Finland a breakthrough took place in the late 1950's: as the so-called counter reaction lost to the K-line, "a special relationship" developed with the Soviet Union. As a consequence of the Night Frost Crisis the Soviet relationship became a factor decisively defining the limits of domestic politics in Finland, a part of Finnish domestic political argumentation. Understood from this basis, finlandization is not, even from the viewpoint of international relations, a special case, but a domestic political culture formed by the relationship between a dominant state, a superpower, and a subordinate state, Finland.

Socialist Realism instead of Formalism : the Formation and Development of the Soviet Music Control System 1932-1950

Whereas it has been widely assumed in the public that the Soviet music policy system had a “top-down” structure of control and command that directly affected musical creativity, in fact my research shows that the relations between the different levels of the music policy system were vague, and the viewpoints of its representatives differed from each other. Because the representatives of the party and government organs controlling operas could not define which kind of music represented Socialist Realism, the system as it developed during the 1930s and 1940s did not function effectively enough in order to create such a centralised control of Soviet music, still less could Soviet operas fulfil the highly ambiguous aesthetics of Socialist Realism. I show that musical discussions developed as bureaucratic ritualistic arenas, where it became more important to reveal the heretical composers, making scapegoats of them, and requiring them to perform self-criticism, than to give directions on how to reach the artistic goals of Socialist Realism. When one opera was found to be unacceptable, this lead to a strengthening of control by the party leadership, which lead to more operas, one after the other, to be revealed as failures. I have studied the control of the composition, staging and reception of the opera case-studies, which remain obscure in the West despite a growing scholarly interest in them, and have created a detailed picture of the foundation and development of the Soviet music control system in 1932-1950. My detailed discussion of such case-studies as Ivan Dzerzhinskii’s The Quiet Don, Dmitrii Shostakovich’s Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk District, Vano Muradeli’s The Great Friendship, Sergei Prokofiev’s Story of a Real Man, Tikhon Khrennikov’s Frol Skobeev and Evgenii Zhukovskii’s From All One’s Heart backs with documentary precision the historically revisionist model of the development of Soviet music. In February 1948, composers belonging to the elite of the Union of Soviet Composers, e.g. Dmitri Shostakovich and Sergei Prokofiev, were accused in a Central Committee Resolution of formalism, as been under the influence of western modernism. Accusations of formalism were connected to the criticism of the conciderable financial, material and social privileges these composers enjoyed in the leadership of the Union. With my new archival findings I give a more detailed picture of the financial background for the 1948 campaign. The independent position of the music funding organization of the Union of Soviet Composers (Muzfond) to decide on its finances was an exceptional phenomenon in the Soviet Union and contradicted the strivings to strengthen the control of Soviet music. The financial audits of the Union of Soviet Composers did not, however, change the elite status of some of its composers, except for maybe a short duration in some cases. At the same time the independence of the significal financial authorities of Soviet theatres was restricted. The cuts in the governmental funding allocated to Soviet theatres contradicted the intensified ideological demands for Soviet operas.

Description of sampling stations, methods of benthic sampling and biological water quality assessment; with some consideration of the influence of sample variation on the assessment values obtained

The first bilateral study of methods of biological sampling and biological methods of water quality assessment took place during June 1977 on selected sampling sites in the catchment of the River Trent (UK). The study was arranged in accordance with the protocol established by the joint working group responsible for the Anglo-Soviet Environmental Agreement. The main purpose of the bilateral study in Nottingham was for some of the methods of sampling and biological assessment used by UK biologists to be demonstrated to their Soviet counterparts and for the Soviet biologists to have the opportunity to test these methods at first hand in order to judge the potential of any of these methods for use within the Soviet Union. This paper is concerned with the nine river stations in the Trent catchment.

The architecture of influence: Paul Rudolph's Art and Architecture Building at Yale

Focussing on Paul Rudolph’s Art & Architecture Building at Yale, this thesis demonstrates how the building synthesises the architect’s attitude to architectural education, urbanism and materiality. It tracks the evolution of the building from its origins – which bear a relationship to Rudolph’s pedagogical ideas – to later moments when its occupants and others reacted to it in a series of ways that could never have been foreseen. The A&A became the epicentre of the university’s counter culture movement before it was ravaged by a fire of undetermined origins. Arguably, it represents the last of its kind in American architecture, a turning point at the threshold of postmodernism. Using an archive that was only made available to researchers in 2009, this is the first study to draw extensively on the research files of the late architectural writer and educator, C. Ray Smith. Smith’s 1981 manuscript about the A&A entitled “The Biography of a Building,” was never published. The associated research files and transcripts of discussions with some thirty interviewees, including Rudolph, provide a previously unavailable wealth of information. Following Smith’s methodology, meetings were recorded with those involved in the A&A including, where possible, some of Smith’s original interviewees. When placed within other significant contexts – the physicality of the building itself as well as the literature which surrounds it – these previously untold accounts provide new perspectives and details, which deepen the understanding of the building and its place within architectural discourse. Issues revealed include the importance of the influence of Louis Kahn’s Yale Art Gallery and Yale’s Collegiate Gothic Campus on the building’s design. Following a tumultuous first fifty years, the A&A remains an integral part of the architectural education of Yale students and, furthermore, constitutes an important didactic tool for all students of architecture.

The Soviet Union and the International Brigades, 1936-1939

The International Brigades are typically viewed as a fighting force whose impetus came from the Comintern, and thus from within the walls of the Kremlin. If the assumption is essentially correct, the broader relation between Stalin’s USSR and the IB has received little attention. This chapter constitutes an empirically-based study of the Soviet role not only in the formation of the IB, but of the Red Army’s collaboration with IB units, and Moscow’s role in the climax and denouement of the brigadistas’ Spanish experience. This study’s principal conclusion is twofold: First, that the creation and sustenance of the IB was part of Stalin’s goal of linking the Loyalist cause with that of the Soviet Union and international communism, a component of a larger geo-strategic gamble which sought to create united opposition to the fascist menace, one which might eventually bring Moscow and the West into a closer alliance. The second conclusion is that the IB, like the broader projection of Soviet power and influence into the Spanish theater, was an overly ambitious operational failure whose abortive retreat is indicative of the basic weakness of the Stalinist regime in the years prior to the Second World War.

La Guerre civile espagnole : l'influence du Québec sur les politiques du gouvernement fédéral

La politique extérieure canadienne en regard de la Guerre civile espagnole fut adoptée en juillet 1937. Le gouvernement canadien adopta une politique de neutralité analogue à celle pilotée par la Grande-Bretagne à travers le Comité de non-intevention. Il promulgua un embargo sur l’exportation d’armes de toutes sortes sur le territoire espagnol, et ce, aux deux belligérants. De plus, avec la Loi sur l’enrôlement à l’étranger, Ottawa criminalisa l’engagement volontaire sur toutes ses formes, plus particulièrement le Bataillon Mackenzie – Papineau, ramification canadienne des Brigades Internationales. Au Québec, cette guerre fut fortement ressentie. Les élites traditionnelles et le clergé catholique anathématisent le Front Populaire espagnol en l’assimilant au communisme soviétique, et se solidarisent avec leurs coreligionnaires espagnols. Selon Ernest Lapointe, bras droit de Mackenzie King au Québec, Ottawa doit tenir compte du courant conservateur chez les Québécois francophones afin de prévenir une crise domestique pouvant avoir des conséquences sur l’unité nationale. Mais la politique étrangère du Canada à l’égard du gouvernement républicain espagnol n’a que partiellement été influencée par la réaction clérico-nationaliste au Québec. Elle est bien davantage le résultat de l’alignement du Canada sur la politique étrangère britannique.

BIM: innovation in design management, influence and challenges of implementation

The construction industry is widely being criticised as a fragmented industry. There are mounting calls for the industry to change. The espoused change calls for collaboration as well as embracing innovation in the process of design, construction and across the supply chain. Innovation and the application of emerging technologies are seen as enablers for integrating the processes ‘integrating the team’ such as building information modelling (BIM). A questionnaire survey was conducted to ascertain change in construction with regard to design management, innovation and the application of BIM as cutting edge pathways for collaboration. The respondents to the survey were from an array of designations across the construction industry such as construction managers, designers, engineers, design coordinators, design managers, architects, architectural technologists and surveyors. There was a general agreement by most respondents that the design team was responsible for design management in their organisation. There is a perception that the design manager and the client are the catalyst for advancing innovation. The current state of industry in terms of incorporating BIM technologies is posing a challenge as well as providing an opportunity for accomplishment. BIM technologies provide a new paradigm shift in the way buildings are designed, constructed and maintained. This paradigm shift calls for rethinking the curriculum for educating building professionals, collectively.

The end of the cold war and the causes of Soviet collapse

"In 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev ascended to power in the USSR. In selecting a young reformer to the position of general secretary, the politburo had recognised the pressing need to revitalise the Soviet Union. To this end, the leadership imposed a series of reforms aimed at reinvigorating the Soviet economy and society, of which the shifts in foreign policy were the most radical and wide-ranging. Yet, the culmination of the reform process was not Soviet reinvigoration, but the rapid collapse of the USSR. The End of the Cold War and the Causes of Soviet Collapse examines the role played by this foreign policy reform process in the breakdown of Soviet power. Nick Bisley uses a historical sociological theory of the state to analyse the influence of foreign policy alongside the other domestic factors which shaped the development, functioning and failure of the Soviet state.
He concludes that the international confrontation was an important structural element of Soviet state rule and that the end of the confrontation contributed to the destabilisation of the state in the late 1980s. Moreover, he shows that international factors are fundamental to the functioning of modern states and that international and domestic orders shape one another in vital ways."--BOOK JACKET.

Violence and xenophobia as means of social control in times of collapse: the soviet occupation of post-war Germany, 1945-1947

This article explores an overlooked aspect of the Soviet occupation of post-war Germany, namely, the influence of wartime violence on German behavioural patterns during the post-war period. Whilst many historians have noted that violent Soviet conduct in Germany merely encouraged the intensification of existing anti-Soviet attitudes therein, few have attempted to thoroughly investigate its influence on German behaviour. The conclusions made by those few historians who have done so are unsupported by the Soviet archival evidence drawn upon in the article. Using this evidence, the article highlights the tentative links between the violent repression of an occupation force and the muted responses of its subjects. It concludes that the nature of the repression and of the broader occupation landscape in which it developed, was integral in ensuring that the characteristically docile behaviour of the German population toward the Soviet occupier continued unabated throughout much of the occupation period.

An issues paper: the roots/routes of Australian architecture: elements of an alternative architectural history

The dynamism and mobility of architects in their approach to architecturaldesign practice provides a context that emphasises that architecture, likeculture, is not static or rooted in place, but is intricately configured throughthe dual processes of locality and mobility – both physical and theoretical. Theproduction of architecture in Australia, as in other immigrant-rich societies,provides a case for reinforcing the theory that architectural mobility and travelare integral to the architecture of place.This issues paper sets out to re-examine the contribution of geo-culturalinfluences upon Australia’s architectural lineage and considers a diverse rangeof themes across an equally broad timeframe; British colonial transpositions; thedissemination of Modernism in Australia; the latent contribution of mid-twentiethcentury European émigré architects; and the secreted history of Australia’sAsian architecture. Common to all, however, is the notion of architecturaltranslation as a process of influences transmitted, transposed or adapted toother contexts. It uses Australia as the focus from which to consider how globalcriticism, ideas and theories have travelled and continue to travel transverselyacross time and place, from the late-eighteenth century well into the twenty-first.This paper investigates translations through narratives, processes, networks andtraces of architectural manifestations and begins to draw lines of influence.

Tropical influence in oriental gardens in Brazil

In the contemporary landscaping, among the gardening styles, the Japanese Garden plays very important rule and influence. The Japanese Garden has originated in China-the cradle of gardening culture; and Korea. Their vegetable elements, architectural features and fauna are characteristic, due to use of stones, water, bridges, stoned lamp, bonsai, carps and bamboo (Prunus serrulata, Camellia japonica, Ophiopogon japonicas) and many others. In Brazil, the Japanese Garden has massive influence, the presence of native elements typically tropical is very noticeable. This influence can be observed both in architecture, vegetation and fauna. Thus, this study aimed to identify and analyze the tropical elements in Japanese Gardens in cities such as São Paulo. Japanese Gardens in Brazil were chosen from the following cities: Sao Paulo State, Garça, Jaboticabal and Ribeirão Preto. It was observed, mostly in the presence of different palms species, plants of the Zingiberales order, Alpinia purpurata and styled architectural elements such as lakes. Some elements were able to apply the philosophy of the Japanese Garden, other not.

The Global Plankton Database: an inventory and data from the Former Soviet Union expeditions

At present time, there is a lack of knowledge on the interannual climate-related variability of zooplankton communities of the tropical Atlantic, central Mediterranean Sea, Caspian Sea, and Aral Sea, due to the absence of appropriate databases. In the mid latitudes, the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) is the dominant mode of atmospheric fluctuations over eastern North America, the northern Atlantic Ocean and Europe. Therefore, one of the issues that need to be addressed through data synthesis is the evaluation of interannual patterns in species abundance and species diversity over these regions in regard to the NAO. The database has been used to investigate the ecological role of the NAO in interannual variations of mesozooplankton abundance and biomass along the zonal array of the NAO influence. Basic approach to the proposed research involved: (1) development of co-operation between experts and data holders in Ukraine, Russia, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, UK, and USA to rescue and compile the oceanographic data sets and release them on CD-ROM, (2) organization and compilation of a database based on FSU cruises to the above regions, (3) analysis of the basin-scale interannual variability of the zooplankton species abundance, biomass, and species diversity.

Pietilä: El proyecto de Dipoli

Dipoli es un edificio plurifuncional localizado en el campus de Otaniemi que acoge los servicios generales del alumnado. Tanto encargo como propiedad pertenecía, hasta 2013, a la Asociación de Estudiantes de Helsinki University of Technology TKK (actualmente conocida como Aalto University), cuando se vendió y traspasó a la propia universidad. La tesis estudia este proyecto (1961-66) como uno de los ejemplos más significativos de la obra de los arquitectos Reima (1923-93)y Raili Pietilä (1926-), quienes se unieron tanto personal como profesionalmente el mismo año de la convocatoria del concurso (1961). Debido a la dificultad del encargo por la dimensión y flexibilidad de los espacios requeridos, el primer premio quedó desierto puesto que ninguna propuesta cumplía con todos los requisitos establecidos. El jurado otorgó el segundo premio a su proyecto junto con Osmo Lappo y solicitó posteriormente a ambos un desarrollo más profundo del mismo. Finalmente optaron por construir el edificio planteado por los Pietilä. En él debía desarrollarse un amplio abanico de actividades sociales como reuniones, entretenimiento nocturno, actuaciones, proyecciones de películas, cenas y bailes, así como servir de comedor durante los meses de invierno y espacio destinado a congresos en la época estival. Además, en dicho edificio se pretendía acoger el Sindicato de Estudiantes de la Universidad Tecnológica de Helsinki y se localizaría en el nuevo campus de Otaniemi a escasos kilómetros de la capital, donde Alvar Aalto ya estaba diseñando varios equipamientos universitarios siguiendo el planeamiento general que proyectó en el concurso de 1949. El elemento más característico de este proyecto es la cubierta, una estructura continua formada a partir de un caparazón hueco de hormigón in situ capaz de absorber dos lenguajes diferentes y generar, bajo ella, un espacio singular con multitud de posibilidades funcionales. Su geometría permite dividir el programa en estancias de menor tamaño sin perder ni la identidad ni unidad formal. La manera en que se iluminan los espacios bajo ella se consigue de formas diferentes: si bien la volumetría de líneas cartesianas presenta un sistema de aperturas longitudinales por donde penetra la luz cenital, en la forma más libre aparecen un conjunto de lucernarios de diferente tamaños y posiciones aparentemente aleatorias que introducen la luz natural por el plano del techo de forma más controlada, apoyada por la disposición de las ventanas perimetrales. El juego de espesores de la cubierta ofrece un conjunto de matices que pretenden resolver los tres condicionantes principales del proyecto, la adecuación de los usos en su interior, la compatibilidad de circulaciones de los usuarios y la inserción en el lugar. La percepción de este plano horizontal atraviesa lecturas múltiples, desde su uso primario de cubrición y cuya distancia con el plano del suelo se comprime para tensionar la grieta de luz al tiempo que ofrece nuevas relaciones con el paisaje hasta convertirse en fachada al apoyarse en el suelo y crear un límite físico entre interior y exterior. El objetivo fundamental de la tesis es entender mejor la traza particular de Dipoli desde una visión rigurosa que amplíe el conocimiento del edificio y al mismo tiempo explique el espacio propuesto a través de las diferentes herramientas de proyecto. Para ello se ha elaborado una documentación de la obra que parte de recopilar, seleccionar y redibujar la información existente desde el estado previo a la construcción del objeto terminado. El sentido de volver al Centro de Estudiantes de Otaniemi, supone, además de ayudar a comprender el trabajo de sus autores, entender el proceso de la historia de la arquitectura finlandesa y detectar relaciones con otras obras más lejanas con las que pudiese compartir ciertos valores, facilitando un entendimiento más global de la historia. Esta investigación se inicia desde la hipótesis que la forma final del edificio y su relación con el lugar, para proponer un tipo de arquitectura que confía en la observación sensible del programa, del uso, de las escalas de los espacios, del movimiento de las personas y su relación y anclaje con el lugar. Y en este sentido, el trabajo se desarrolla guiado por estos aspectos que se manifiestan también desde la influencia y comprensión de otros trabajos propios y ajenos. Para detectar las claves de proyecto que les han permitido la construcción espacial y formal de su arquitectura, entendiendo éstas como el conjunto de herramientas y mecanismos que reflexionan sobre una particular composición volumétrica y espacios dinámicos que ofrecen un aspecto exterior expresivo, la tesis se articula sobre dos capítulos principales “Contextos” y “Proyecto y Construcción” donde se quiere estudiar el proyecto en su forma más completa. Esta pareja de apartados aborda la descripción del marco temporal, físico, cultural, personal y profesional de los arquitectos, el análisis y síntesis de la propuesta y, por último, la repercusión del proyecto. Contextos pretende ubicar la obra además de facilitar la comprensión del conjunto de aspectos y condicionantes que determinaron la materialización de Dipoli. Este capítulo se subdivide a su vez en cinco apartados: Contexto Histórico, Físico y Cultural, Personal, Profesional e Incidencia de Dipoli. El Contexto histórico se centra en la descripción pormenorizada del conjunto de situaciones que influyen en el arquitecto cuando se toman decisiones durante el proceso de proyectar. El objetivo es definir los condicionantes que pueden haber afectado directa o indirectamente la obra. El capítulo comienza subrayando los temas de interés comunes para el resto de sus homólogos finlandeses. Principalmente se centra en la década de 1950 como etapa previa a la gestación de Dipoli. También atiende el proceso de evolución de la arquitectura finlandesa desde finales del S.XIX unido a la crisis de identidad nacional que el maestro Alvar Aalto superará por sus obras pero también por su personalidad y supondrá una gran sombra al resto de sus compañeros en el marco nacional e internacional provocando una reacción contraria a sus proyectos y persona entre el resto de arquitectos. Por este motivo, al tiempo que se gestaba el proyecto de Dipoli emergieron un grupo de profesionales que defendían fuertemente las trazas cartesianas del racionalismo como Aulis Blomstedt o Juhani Pallasmaa y que consiguieron abrir una nueva perspectiva intelectual. Por tanto será inevitable que la presencia del maestro nórdico Alvar Aalto aparezca a lo largo de toda la tesis, permitiéndonos un mejor entendimiento de la carga orgánica y humana de sus trabajos desde la perspectiva de los Pietilä. Posteriormente este capítulo desgrana aquellos intereses que dominaban el marco arquitectónico internacional y que pudieron influir en las soluciones planteadas. Dipoli será puesto en relación a diversas arquitecturas contemporáneas que presentan un enfoque diferente al esbozado por el Movimiento Moderno y cuyo marco de referencias guarda algún tipo de relación con los mismos temas de proyecto. Es el caso del grupo Team 10 o determinados ejemplos de arquitectos alemanes como Hugo Häring y Hans Scharoun, incluso puntos en común con el sistema constructivista del vanguardismo soviético. Estas relaciones con otras arquitecturas matizan su carácter singular e incluso se revisa en qué medida esta propuesta amplifica los aspectos que comparten. En cuanto al Contexto físico y cultural, una primera aproximación al ámbito donde el edificio se sitúa nos revela las características generales de un lugar claramente diferente a la ubicación del resto de edificios del campus. A continuación se adentra en el origen del nuevo centro universitario desde el planeamiento urbanístico de Alvar Aalto y revela tanto la forma de disponer las construcciones como las propuestas que el maestro había desarrollado con anterioridad a la convocatoria del concurso. Además aquí se destacan aquellos aspectos que propiciaron la elección del solar. Prosigue adentrándose en el programa propuesto por el jurado –entre cuyos miembros se encontraba el propio Aalto- y el análisis de las propuestas presentadas por cada uno de los arquitectos que obtuvieron una mención. Por último, se estudian y definen las obras más relevantes localizadas en el entorno físico del proyecto y que existían con anterioridad, destacando principalmente el trabajo de los Siren (Heikki y Kaija) y Alvar Aalto por los motivos desarrollados en el punto anterior. Prosigue con el Contexto Personal donde se seleccionan de datos biográficos que expliquen, en parte, las circunstancias personales que perfilaron su manera de entender la arquitectura y que consecuentemente influyeron en su camino intelectual hasta llegar a Dipoli. A continuación se indaga en la relación profesional y personal con Raili Paatelainen para establecer en qué medida participaron ambos en la propuesta. Este apartado concluye con el estudio de la etapa docente que profundiza en los temas de proyecto que Pietilä presentaba a los alumnos en sus clases de proyectos. En el proceso de comprensión de la evolución teórica y proyectual de los arquitectos se considera imprescindible la revisión de otros edificios propios que se enmarcan en el Contexto profesional. Éstos forman parte de la etapa de mayor actividad del estudio como son el Pabellón de Finlandia para la Exposición de Bruselas (1956-58), la Iglesia de Kaleva en Tampere (1959-66) y el Pabellón Nórdico para la Bienal de Venecia de 1960. Se completa la visión de estos tres ejemplos previos a Dipoli desde las investigaciones teóricas que realizó de forma paralela y que se difundieron a través de varias exposiciones. Nos centraremos en aquellas tres que fueron más relevantes en la madurez del arquitecto (Morfología y Urbanismo, La Zona y Estudios Modulares) para establecer relaciones entre unos aspectos y otros. En esta sección no se pretende realizar un análisis en profundidad, ni tampoco recoger la mayor parte de la obra de los Pietilä, sino más bien revelar los rasgos más significativos que faciliten el entendimiento de los valores anteriormente mencionados. Por último, Incidencia de Dipoli se refiere a la repercusión del edificio durante su construcción y finalización. Desde esta premisa, recoge el conjunto de críticas publicadas en las revistas de mayor difusión internacional que decidieron mostrar la propuesta además desde el propio interés del proyecto, por tratarse de un arquitecto reconocido internacionalmente gracias a la repercusión que obtuvieron sus proyectos anteriores. Se analiza el contenido de los artículos para establecer diversos encuentros con el capítulo Contextos y con los propios escritos de Pietilä. También se recogen las opiniones de críticos relevantes como Kenneth Frampton, Bruno Zevi o Christian Norberg-Schulz, destacando aquellos aspectos por los que mostraron un interés mayor. También se recoge y valora la opinión de sus homólogos finlandeses y que contradictoriamente se sitúa en el polo opuesto a la del juicio internacional. Se adentra en las situaciones complejas que propició el rechazo del edificio al desvincularse por completo de la corriente racionalista que dominaba el pensamiento crítico finés unido a la búsqueda de nuevas alternativas proyectuales que les distanciase del éxito del maestro Alvar Aalto. Pretende esclarecer tanto la justificación de dichos comentarios negativos como los motivos por los cuales Reima y Raili no obtuvieron encargos durante casi diez años, tras la finalización de Dipoli. Nos referiremos también a la propia opinión de los arquitectos. Para ello, en el apartado Morfología Literal se recoge el texto que Reima Pietilä publicó en el número 9 de la revista Arkkitehti para contrarrestar las numerosas críticas recibidas. Se subraya aquellos aspectos de proyecto que inciden directamente en la percepción y razón de ser de la propuesta. Por último, se manifiesta la valoración crítica de dos personas muy próximas al entorno personal y profesional de los Pietilä: Roger Connah y Malcolm Quantrill. Ambas figuras son las que han adentrado en el trabajo de los arquitectos con mayor profundidad y aportado una visión más completa del contexto arquitectónico de Finlandia en el s.XX. Se han interesado principalmente por el conocimiento morfológico que les ha llevado a la observación de los fenómenos de la naturaleza. Se apunta también la falta de objetividad de sus opiniones originadas en parte por haber colaborado profesionalmente y ser amigo íntimo de la familia respectivamente. El valor de la documentación aportada por ambos reside principalmente en la fiel transmisión de las explicaciones del propio Pietilä. El último capítulo Proyecto y Construcción engloba tanto la descripción exhaustiva del proyecto como el análisis de la obra. Al tiempo que se explica la propuesta, se establecen continuamente relaciones y paralelismos con otras arquitecturas que ayudan a entenderla. Para ello, se establecen tres apartados elementales: “El lugar”, “Programa y geometrías” y “Presencia y materialidad física” y se pretende identificar aquellas herramientas de proyecto en las que confía para la materialización de la obra al tiempo que se profundiza en la evolución de la propuesta. En cuanto a El lugar, se describe de manera pormenorizada el recorrido hasta alcanzar el edificio y cómo la mirada atenta de la naturaleza que lo rodea está continuamente presente en todos los dibujos de la propuesta. Se realiza un estudio tanto de la multiplicidad de accesos como del vacío existente en planta baja que forma parte del espacio público y que atraviesa el edificio diagonalmente. Desde aquí se evaluará los espacios intermedios existentes que matizan los ámbitos donde se desarrolla cada una de las actividades. A continuación se enfoca el estudio de la ventana como elemento relevante en la transición de espacios interiores y exteriores para posteriormente adentrarnos en la importancia de los recorridos en la planta superior y cómo las salas polivalentes se acomodan a estos. Programas y geometrías explica la solución y desarrollo de la propuesta a través de los tanteos de la planta. Detecta simultáneamente aquellos aspectos que aparecen en otros proyectos y que pueden haber influido en el desarrollo de la obra. Una vez que han sido estudiados los dos niveles se introduce la sección para analizar las conexiones entre ambos planos, destacando los tipos de escaleras y accesos que propician la multiplicidad de recorridos y en consecuencia el movimiento de las personas. En el último apartado se identifica la geometría de la estructura a través de la descripción formal de la cubierta y sus apoyos en planta para conocer cómo responde el volumen definitivo a la adecuación de los usos. El carácter del edificio a través del empleo de los materiales y las técnicas de construcción utilizadas se indaga desde la Materialidad física. Este punto de vista esclarece temas de proyecto como la relación multisensorial de Dipoli y el concepto del tiempo relacionado con espacios de carácter dinámico o estático. Una vez se ha realizado un análisis de la obra construida a través de sus recorridos, se plantea un último regreso al exterior para observar la presencia del edificio a través de su tamaño, color y texturas. Este apartado nos mostrará la mirada atenta a la escala del proyecto como vector de dirección que pretende encontrar la inserción adecuada del edificio en el lugar, cerrando el proceso de proyecto. El motivo de desarrollar esta tesis en torno a Dipoli se apoya en su consideración como paradigma de una arquitectura que confía en la observación sensible del programa, uso, las escalas de los espacios, circulaciones y su relación y anclaje con el lugar como argumentos fundamentales de proyecto, cuya realidad concreta consigue situar la propuesta en el marco histórico de la arquitectura nórdica e internacional. Además la distancia histórica desde mundo actual respecto a la década de los años 60 del s.XX nos permite entender el contexto cultural donde se inserta Dipoli que continúa nuestra historia reciente de la arquitectura y concibe la obra construida como una extensión de nuestro mundo contemporáneo. Por ello se valora el proyecto desde la mirada hacia atrás que analiza las diferencias entre la realidad construida y las intenciones de partida. Esta revisión dotada de una distancia crítica nos permite adentrarnos en la investigación de manera objetiva. Igualmente presenta una distancia histórica (referida al tiempo transcurrido desde su construcción) y socio-cultural que favorece la atenuación de prejuicios y aspectos morales que puedan desviar una mirada analítica y se alejen de una valoración imparcial. Dipoli, enmarcada en dicho periodo, mantiene la capacidad crítica para ser analizada. ABSTRACT The dissertation defends Dipoli ( 1961-1966 ) as one of the most significant examples of the Reima ( 1923-1993 ) Raili Pietilä (1926 -), who joined both personally and professionally the same year of the project´s competition (1961). Due to the difficulty of the commission by the size and flexibility of the required areas, there was not first prize awarded because none of the submitted proposals met all the requirements. The jury awarded Dipoli with second prize together with a competing scheme by Osmo Lappo. The board subsequently asked for a further development of both proposals and finally selected the one by Pietilä. The completed project allows a wide range of social activities such as meetings, night entertainment, performances, film screenings, dinners and dance to take place while the facility can also serve as a dining hall during winter months and conference center in the summer when necessary. In addition, the building was intended to house the Helsinki University of Technology (now Aalto University) Student Union. The University, at the time being designed by Alvar Aalto following his successful entry to the master plan competition in 1949, was located a few kilometers from the capital on the new campus in Otaniemi. The most characteristic element of the project is its roof which can be described as a continuous form achieved an in-situ concrete cavity structure that can modulate two different geometric languages and generate a singular space under it. The building is, in general terms, an unique shell space with many functional possibilities. Its geometry allows the program to split its functions into smaller sizes without losing the identity or formal unity of the general object. The way in which the spaces are illuminated is solved in two different ways. First, while the Cartesian-line volume presents a series of longitudinal openings into which natural light penetrates, the free-form volume shows a set of skylights in apparently random positions that vary in size and that introduce natural light through the roof in a more controlled manner. In addition the perimeter openings are present that relate directly to the nature that surrounds the building. The adaptable thickness of the roof provides a set of solutions that resolve the three main issues of the project: the adequacy of the functions in the interior areas, the complex capability for user flows and circulation and the manner in which the building is inserted in its context. The perception of the roof´ horizontal plane offers multiple interpretations, from its primary use as a primitive cover whose distance from the ground compresses the void and creates a light tension, to the new relationships with the landscape where by the roof becomes a façade cladding and rests directly on the ground to create a physical boundary between interior and exterior. The main scope of this research is to better understand the particular trace of Dipoli from a rigorous architectural view to deep into the knowledge of the building and, at the same time, to explain the space through a series of project design tools that have been used. For this reason, an accurate documentation has arisen from collecting, selecting and redrawing the existing information from the sketching stage to the built object. A through reanalysis of the Otaniemi Student Center therefore provides not only a more complete understanding of the work of the architects, but also leads to a better comprehension of the history of Finnish architecture, which is related to other cultural relationships and which shares certain architectural values which a more comprehensive understanding of general architectural history. This research starts from the working hypothesis that the final shape of the building and its relationship to its place created a type of architecture that relies on a sensitive observation of the program, the use of varying scales of space, the movement and flow of people and finally the coexistence with the natural context. In this sense, the work is developed based on those aspects that are also reflected in the influence of others architects by understanding both their own and other architects´ work. In order to obtain a personal reading of the project facts that allowed the architects construct Dipoli (understanding the facts as a set of tools and project mechanisms that are able to generate a particular volumetric composition and dynamic spaces that at the same time provide an expressive exterior), the research hinges on two main sections, "Contexts" and "Design and Construction", that study the project from all perspectives. This two parts address the description of temporal , physical , cultural , personal and professional framework, analysis and synthesis of the proposal and finally, the national and international influences on the project. Contexts seek to place the work and to facilitate the understanding of all aspects and conditions that led to the creation of Dipoli. This chapter is subdivided into five sections: Historical Context, Cultural and Physical, Personal, Professional and Dipoli Influences. Historical Context focuses on a detailed description of a set of precedents that influenced the architect when making decisions during design process. The objective is to define the conditions that could directly or indirectly shape the work. This chapter begins by highlighting issues of common interest to the rest its Finnish counterparts. The text is mainly focused on the 1950s as a prelude to Dipoli´s conception. It will also address the process of Finnish architecture from the late nineteenth century as linked to the national identity crisis that the great master Alvar Aalto overcame with both his works and personality, being a great drain on the rest of his colleagues. This aspect caused a reaction against Aalto and his projects. For this reason, at the time that Dipoli came into being a number of professionals who strongly defended the traces of Cartesian Rationalism, including Juhani Pallasmaa and Aulis Blomstedt emerged and brought a new intellectual perspective to the Finnish architecture scene. It is thus inevitable that the presence of Alvar Aalto will be apparent throughout the dissertation to allow a better understanding of the organizational and human character of their work from the Pietiläs´ perspective. Later, this chapter identifies those interests that dominated the international architectural framework that could have influenced Dipoli. The project will be placed in relation to various contemporary architectural works that were created using a different approach to that outlined by the Modern Movement. This is present in the case of Team 10 group and with specific examples of German architects including Hans Scharoun and Hugo Häring, as well as some commonalities with Soviet Constructivism. These relationships with other architecture qualify its singular character and even extend how this proposal amplifies those shared aspects. Physical and Cultural Context involves the unique site where the building is located which includes different features from the location of other buildings on the campus. IT then progresses into the origin of the new campus from the urban planning of Alvar Aalto and reveals both the setting and proposed constructions that Aalto had developed. This section also highlights the aspects that led to the choice of the site. I go deep into the program proposed by the jury (of whom Aalto was a member) and the analysis of the alternative proposals that received a special commendation. Finally, I study and define the most relevant works located near Dipoli, emphasizing primarily the work of the Sirens (Heikki and Kaija) and Alvar Aalto for the reasons developed in the previous section. I then proceed with the Personal Context, where a series of biographical data are selected to begin to explain the personal circumstances that outlined the Pietilas´ architectural understanding and consequently could have influenced their intellectual approach to design Dipoli. Then the text explores their professional and personal relationship to establish what extent they participated in the proposal. This section concludes with the study of the Reima Pietilä´s teaching period at Oulu that explores the issues he presented to his students there. In the process of understanding the Pietiläs´ theoretical and design evolution, it must be considered essential to study other buildings that are part of their professional context. These projects belong to the most active stage of their office and include the Finnish Pavilion for the World´s Fair in Brussels (1956-1958), Kaleva Church in Tampere (1959-1966) and the Nordic Pavilion at the 1960 Venice Biennale. We will complete the view of Dipoli from previous theoretical investigations performed in parallel that were spread through several exhibitions. We will focus on the three that were most relevant to the evolution of the architect (Morphology and Urbanism, the Zone, and Stick Studies) to establish a series of useful relationships. This section is not intended to be an in-depth analysis nor to collect most of the work of the Pietiläs´; but rather to reveal the most significant features that facilitate an understanding of the above values. Finally, Dipoli´s Impact refers to the influence of the building from many points of view during its construction and after its completion. It collects the reviews published in the world's most relevant magazines which had decided to show the alternate proposals, generally conceived of by internationally-renowned architects. I analyze the content of the articles in order to establish a series of parallels with the chapter Contexts and own writings Pietilä to clarify if main design directions were clear at that time. The views of relevant critics, including Kenneth Frampton, Bruno Zevi and Christian Norberg -Schulz, are also collected here. This episode also collects and assesses the views of these critics´ Finnish counterparts that generally stood at the opposite side of the international debate. It delves into the complex situation that led to the rejection of the building by the rationalists that dominated the Finnish critical thinking while searching for new alternatives to distance themselves from the Alvar Aalto´s success. It aims to clarify both the justification for these negative comments and the reasons why Reima and Raili not obtain a single commission for nearly ten years after the completion of Dipoli. From the critics we will approach the opinion of Reima Pietilä himself. To do this, in the Literal Morphology section we will see how the architect tried to defend his position. Those design tool that directly affected the perception of the proposal are provided through the figures of Roger Connah and Malcolm Quantrill. Finally, a critical –personal and professional- review of these two very close figures will take place. Despite knowing that both delved into the work of architects with greater depth and provided a complete view of the Finnish architectural context in 20th century, they have focused mainly morphological knowledge which has led to the observation of natural phenomena. It also notes the lack of objectivity in their views caused in part by, in the case of Connah, collaborating professionally and in that of Quantrill being a close friend of the Pietilä family. The value of the documentation provided by both resides mainly in the faithful transmission of the Pietiläs´ own explanations. The final chapter covers both Design and Construction and provides a comprehensive project description in order tofaithfully analyse the work. As the proposal is being explained, relationships of its built form are continuously linked to other architectural projects to gain a better understanding of Dipoli itself. To do this we have set three basic sections: "The Place", "Geometries & Function" and "Presence and Materiality. Construction process" that intended to identify those project tools for the realization of the work while deepens the proposal´s evolution. The Place describes how to approach and reach the building in detail and how the view out towards the surrounding natural setting is continuously shown in the proposal´s drawings. We will study both the multiplicity of entrances as well as the corridor downstairs as part of the public space that diagonally goes through the building. Then, the existing voids in the concrete cave for public activities will be evaluated. Lastly, the study will focus on the openings as a significant element in the transition from interior and exterior areas to describe the importance of the circulation on the second floor and how function is able to accommodate through the areas of void. Geometries & Function explains the final solution and the development of the proposal through the floor plan. Simultaneously it detects those aspects that appear in other projects and that may have influenced the development of the work. Once we have analyzed both levels –ground and second floor- section drawings come into the topic to study the connections between the two levels and highlighting the types of hierarchy for the multiple paths to organize the flows of people inside the building. In the last section the structural geometry is identified through the description of the form and how it responds to the final volumetrical settings. The character of the building through the use of materials and construction techniques inquires from Presence and Materiality. This point of view clarifies multisensory project issues as Dipoli relationship to the dynamic or static character or different spaces inside the building. Once the analysis has been made we will step back to a final return to the building´s exterior to analyze the presence of the building through its scale, colour and textures. This section emphasizes the project´s scale and orientation to find the proper insertion of the building in place. In short, this dissertation has been done by the idea that Pietiläs´special abilities were allowed from a sensitive observation of the program, the creation of a variety of special scales, dynamic circulation and the relating relationship with the project´s location as fundamental design tools. From this aspect, Dipoli could be more usefully framed in the historical context of Nordic and international architecture. The dissertation allows us to better understand the cultural context of the 1960s, in which Dipoli was established since it continues our recent architectural history. The final built form is conceived as an extension of our contemporary world. Therefore the project is assessed through the comparison of the architects´ intentions and the final completed project.

Determination of the influence of specific building regulations in smart buildings

The automation of domestic services began to be implemented in buildings since the late nineteenth century, and today we are used to terms like ‘intelligent buildings’, ‘digital home’ or ‘domotic buildings’. These concepts tell us about constructions which integrate new technologies in order to improve comfort, optimize energy consumption or enhance the security of users. In conjunction, building regulations have been updated to suit the needs of society and to regulate these new facilities in such structures. However, we are not always sure about how far, from the quantitative or qualitative point of view, legislation should regulate certain aspects of the building activity. Consequently, content analysis is adopted in this research to determine the influence of building regulations in the implementation of new technologies in the construction process. This study includes the analysis of different European regulations, the collection and documentation of such guidelines that have been established and a study of the impact that all of these have had in the way we start thinking an architectural project. The achievements of the research could be explained in terms of the regulatory requirements that must be taken into account in order to achieve a successful implementation of a home automation system, and the key finding has been the confirmation of how the design of smart buildings may be promoted through specific regulatory requirements while other factors, such as the global economic situation, do not seem to affect directly the rate of penetration of home automation in construction.

Greek lines and other architectural essays,

Greek lines and their influence on modern architecture.--The growth of conscience in modern decorative art.--Historical architecture, and the influence of the personal element upon it.--The royal château of Blois.--The present state of architecture.--Architecture and poetry.