Benchmarking the simulation of Cr isotope fractionation

A benchmark problem set consisting of four problem levels was developed for the simulation of Cr isotope fractionation in 1D and 2D domains. The benchmark is based on a recent field study where Cr(VI) reduction and accompanying Cr isotope fractionation occurs abiotically by an aqueous reaction with dissolved Fe 2+ (Wanner et al., 2012., Appl. Geochem., 27, 644–662). The problem set includes simulation of the major processes affecting the Cr isotopic composition such as the dissolution of various Cr(VI) bearing minerals, fractionation during abiotic aqueous Cr(VI) reduction, and non-fractionating precipitation of Cr(III) as sparingly soluble Cr-hydroxide. Accuracy of the presented solutions was ensured by running the problems with four well-established reactive transport modeling codes: TOUGHREACT, MIN3P, CRUNCHFLOW, and FLOTRAN. Results were also compared with an analytical Rayleigh-type fractionation model. An additional constraint on the correctness of the results was obtained by comparing output from the problem levels simulating Cr isotope fractionation with the corresponding ones only simulating bulk concentrations. For all problem levels, model to model comparisons showed excellent agreement, suggesting that for the tested geochemical processes any code is capable of accurately simulating the fate of individual Cr isotopes.

Improving the management of water and nitrogen resources in cropping systems by using simulation models

Los modelos de simulación de cultivos permiten analizar varias combinaciones de laboreo-rotación y explorar escenarios de manejo. El modelo DSSAT fue evaluado bajo condiciones de secano en un experimento de campo de 16 años en la semiárida España central. Se evaluó el efecto del sistema de laboreo y las rotaciones basadas en cereales de invierno, en el rendimiento del cultivo y la calidad del suelo. Los modelos CERES y CROPGRO se utilizaron para simular el crecimiento y rendimiento del cultivo, mientras que el modelo DSSAT CENTURY se utilizó en las simulaciones de SOC y SN. Tanto las observaciones de campo como las simulaciones con CERES-Barley, mostraron que el rendimiento en grano de la cebada era mas bajo para el cereal continuo (BB) que para las rotaciones de veza (VB) y barbecho (FB) en ambos sistemas de laboreo. El modelo predijo más nitrógeno disponible en el laboreo convencional (CT) que en el no laboreo (NT) conduciendo a un mayor rendimiento en el CT. El SOC y el SN en la capa superficial del suelo, fueron mayores en NT que en CT, y disminuyeron con la profundidad en los valores tanto observados como simulados. Las mejores combinaciones para las condiciones de secano estudiadas fueron CT-VB y CT-FB, pero CT presentó menor contenido en SN y SOC que NT. El efecto beneficioso del NT en SOC y SN bajo condiciones Mediterráneas semiáridas puede ser identificado por observaciones de campo y por simulaciones de modelos de cultivos. La simulación del balance de agua en sistemas de cultivo es una herramienta útil para estudiar como el agua puede ser utilizado eficientemente. La comparación del balance de agua de DSSAT , con una simple aproximación “tipping bucket”, con el modelo WAVE más mecanicista, el cual integra la ecuación de Richard , es un potente método para valorar el funcionamiento del modelo. Los parámetros de suelo fueron calibrados usando el método de optimización global Simulated Annealing (SA). Un lisímetro continuo de pesada en suelo desnudo suministró los valores observados de drenaje y evapotranspiración (ET) mientras que el contenido de agua en el suelo (SW) fue suministrado por sensores de capacitancia. Ambos modelos funcionaron bien después de la optimización de los parámetros de suelo con SA, simulando el balance de agua en el suelo para el período de calibración. Para el período de validación, los modelos optimizados predijeron bien el contenido de agua en el suelo y la evaporación del suelo a lo largo del tiempo. Sin embargo, el drenaje fue predicho mejor con WAVE que con DSSAT, el cual presentó mayores errores en los valores acumulados. Esto podría ser debido a la naturaleza mecanicista de WAVE frente a la naturaleza más funcional de DSSAT. Los buenos resultados de WAVE indican que, después de la calibración, este puede ser utilizado como "benchmark" para otros modelos para periodos en los que no haya medidas de campo del drenaje. El funcionamiento de DSSAT-CENTURY en la simulación de SOC y N depende fuertemente del proceso de inicialización. Se propuso como método alternativo (Met.2) la inicialización de las fracciones de SOC a partir de medidas de mineralización aparente del suelo (Napmin). El Met.2 se comparó con el método de inicialización de Basso et al. (2011) (Met.1), aplicando ambos métodos a un experimento de campo de 4 años en un área en regadío de España central. Nmin y Napmin fueron sobreestimados con el Met.1, ya que la fracción estable obtenida (SOC3) en las capas superficiales del suelo fue más baja que con Met.2. El N lixiviado simulado fue similar en los dos métodos, con buenos resultados en los tratamientos de barbecho y cebada. El Met.1 subestimó el SOC en la capa superficial del suelo cuando se comparó con una serie observada de 12 años. El crecimiento y rendimiento del cultivo fueron adecuadamente simulados con ambos métodos, pero el N en la parte aérea de la planta y en el grano fueron sobreestimados con el Met.1. Los resultados variaron significativamente con las fracciones iniciales de SOC, resaltando la importancia del método de inicialización. El Met.2 ofrece una alternativa para la inicialización del modelo CENTURY, mejorando la simulación de procesos de N en el suelo. La continua emergencia de nuevas variedades de híbridos modernos de maíz limita la aplicación de modelos de simulación de cultivos, ya que estos nuevos híbridos necesitan ser calibrados en el campo para ser adecuados para su uso en los modelos. El desarrollo de relaciones basadas en la duración del ciclo, simplificaría los requerimientos de calibración facilitando la rápida incorporación de nuevos cultivares en DSSAT. Seis híbridos de maiz (FAO 300 hasta FAO 700) fueron cultivados en un experimento de campo de dos años en un área semiárida de regadío en España central. Los coeficientes genéticos fueron obtenidos secuencialmente, comenzando con los parámetros de desarrollo fenológico (P1, P2, P5 and PHINT), seguido de los parámetros de crecimiento del cultivo (G2 and G3). Se continuó el procedimiento hasta que la salida de las simulaciones estuvo en concordancia con las observaciones fenológicas de campo. Después de la calibración, los parámetros simulados se ajustaron bien a los parámetros observados, con bajos RMSE en todos los casos. Los P1 y P5 calibrados, incrementaron con la duración del ciclo. P1 fue una función lineal del tiempo térmico (TT) desde emergencia hasta floración y P5 estuvo linealmente relacionada con el TT desde floración a madurez. No hubo diferencias significativas en PHINT entre híbridos de FAO-500 a 700 , ya que tuvieron un número de hojas similar. Como los coeficientes fenológicos estuvieron directamente relacionados con la duración del ciclo, sería posible desarrollar rangos y correlaciones que permitan estimar dichos coeficientes a partir de la clasificación del ciclo. ABSTRACT Crop simulation models allow analyzing various tillage-rotation combinations and exploring management scenarios. DSSAT model was tested under rainfed conditions in a 16-year field experiment in semiarid central Spain. The effect of tillage system and winter cereal-based rotations on the crop yield and soil quality was evaluated. The CERES and CROPGRO models were used to simulate crop growth and yield, while the DSSAT CENTURY was used in the SOC and SN simulations. Both field observations and CERES-Barley simulations, showed that barley grain yield was lower for continuous cereal (BB) than for vetch (VB) and fallow (FB) rotations for both tillage systems. The model predicted higher nitrogen availability in the conventional tillage (CT) than in the no tillage (NT) leading to a higher yield in the CT. The SOC and SN in the top layer, were higher in NT than in CT, and decreased with depth in both simulated and observed values. The best combinations for the dry land conditions studied were CT-VB and CT-FB, but CT presented lower SN and SOC content than NT. The beneficial effect of NT on SOC and SN under semiarid Mediterranean conditions can be identified by field observations and by crop model simulations. The simulation of the water balance in cropping systems is a useful tool to study how water can be used efficiently. The comparison of DSSAT soil water balance, with a simpler “tipping bucket” approach, with the more mechanistic WAVE model, which integrates Richard’s equation, is a powerful method to assess model performance. The soil parameters were calibrated by using the Simulated Annealing (SA) global optimizing method. A continuous weighing lysimeter in a bare fallow provided the observed values of drainage and evapotranspiration (ET) while soil water content (SW) was supplied by capacitance sensors. Both models performed well after optimizing soil parameters with SA, simulating the soil water balance components for the calibrated period. For the validation period, the optimized models predicted well soil water content and soil evaporation over time. However, drainage was predicted better by WAVE than by DSSAT, which presented larger errors in the cumulative values. That could be due to the mechanistic nature of WAVE against the more functional nature of DSSAT. The good results from WAVE indicate that, after calibration, it could be used as benchmark for other models for periods when no drainage field measurements are available. The performance of DSSAT-CENTURY when simulating SOC and N strongly depends on the initialization process. Initialization of the SOC pools from apparent soil N mineralization (Napmin) measurements was proposed as alternative method (Met.2). Method 2 was compared to the Basso et al. (2011) initialization method (Met.1), by applying both methods to a 4-year field experiment in a irrigated area of central Spain. Nmin and Napmin were overestimated by Met.1, since the obtained stable pool (SOC3) in the upper layers was lower than from Met.2. Simulated N leaching was similar for both methods, with good results in fallow and barley treatments. Method 1 underestimated topsoil SOC when compared with a 12-year observed serial. Crop growth and yield were properly simulated by both methods, but N in shoots and grain were overestimated by Met.1. Results varied significantly with the initial SOC pools, highlighting the importance of the initialization procedure. Method 2 offers an alternative to initialize the CENTURY model, enhancing the simulation of soil N processes. The continuous emergence of new varieties of modern maize hybrids limits the application of crop simulation models, since these new hybrids should be calibrated in the field to be suitable for model use. The development of relationships based on the cycle duration, would simplify the calibration requirements facilitating the rapid incorporation of new cultivars into DSSAT. Six maize hybrids (FAO 300 through FAO 700) were grown in a 2-year field experiment in a semiarid irrigated area of central Spain. Genetic coefficients were obtained sequentially, starting with the phenological development parameters (P1, P2, P5 and PHINT), followed by the crop growth parameters (G2 and G3). The procedure was continued until the simulated outputs were in good agreement with the field phenological observations. After calibration, simulated parameters matched observed parameters well, with low RMSE in most cases. The calibrated P1 and P5 increased with the duration of the cycle. P1 was a linear function of the thermal time (TT) from emergence to silking and P5 was linearly related with the TT from silking to maturity . There were no significant differences in PHINT between hybrids from FAO-500 to 700 , as they had similar leaf number. Since phenological coefficients were directly related with the cycle duration, it would be possible to develop ranges and correlations which allow to estimate such coefficients from the cycle classification.

A Kinetic Vlasov Model for Plasma Simulation Using Discontinuous Galerkin Method on Many-Core Architectures

Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Washington, 2016-03

Numerical simulation of abrupt contraction flows using the Double Convected Pom-Pom model

The Double Convected Pom-Pom model was recently introduced to circumvent some numerical and theological defects found in other formulations of the Pom-Pom concept. It is used here for the simulation of a benchmark problem: the flow in an abrupt planar contraction. The predictions are compared with birefringence measurements and show reasonable quantitative agreement with experimental data. A parametric study is also carried out with the aim of analysing the effect of the branching parameter on vortex dynamics and extrudate swell. The results show that the Double Convected Pom-Pom model (DCPP) model is able to discriminate between branched and linear macromolecular structures in accordance with experimental observations. In that respect, the role of the extensional properties in determining complex flow behaviour is stressed. Also, the ratio of the first normal stress difference to the shear stress appears to play a major role in die swell observation. For the time being, the role of the second normal stress difference appears to be less obvious to evaluate in this complex flow. (C) 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Using DEA and simulation in guiding operating units to improved performance

The potential for the use of DEA and simulation in a mutually supporting role in guiding operating units to improved performance is presented. An analysis following a three-stage process is suggested. Stage one involves obtaining the data for the DEA analysis. This can be sourced from historical data, simulated data or a combination of the two. Stage two involves the DEA analysis that identifies benchmark operating units. In the third stage simulation can now be used in order to offer practical guidance to operating units towards improved performance. This can be achieved by the use of sensitivity analysis of the benchmark unit using a simulation model to offer direct support as to the feasibility and efficiency of any variations in operating practices to be tested. Alternatively, the simulation can be used as a mechanism to transmit the practices of the benchmark unit to weaker performing units by building a simulation model of the weaker unit to the process design of the benchmark unit. The model can then compare performance of the current and benchmark process designs. Quantifying improvement in this way provides a useful driver to any process change initiative that is required to bring the performance of weaker units up to the best in class. © 2005 Operational Research Society Ltd. All rights reserved.

Data structures for SIMD logic simulation

Due to the growth of design size and complexity, design verification is an important aspect of the Logic Circuit development process. The purpose of verification is to validate that the design meets the system requirements and specification. This is done by either functional or formal verification. The most popular approach to functional verification is the use of simulation based techniques. Using models to replicate the behaviour of an actual system is called simulation. In this thesis, a software/data structure architecture without explicit locks is proposed to accelerate logic gate circuit simulation. We call thus system ZSIM. The ZSIM software architecture simulator targets low cost SIMD multi-core machines. Its performance is evaluated on the Intel Xeon Phi and 2 other machines (Intel Xeon and AMD Opteron). The aim of these experiments is to: • Verify that the data structure used allows SIMD acceleration, particularly on machines with gather instructions ( section 5.3.1). • Verify that, on sufficiently large circuits, substantial gains could be made from multicore parallelism ( section 5.3.2 ). • Show that a simulator using this approach out-performs an existing commercial simulator on a standard workstation ( section 5.3.3 ). • Show that the performance on a cheap Xeon Phi card is competitive with results reported elsewhere on much more expensive super-computers ( section 5.3.5 ). To evaluate the ZSIM, two types of test circuits were used: 1. Circuits from the IWLS benchmark suit [1] which allow direct comparison with other published studies of parallel simulators.2. Circuits generated by a parametrised circuit synthesizer. The synthesizer used an algorithm that has been shown to generate circuits that are statistically representative of real logic circuits. The synthesizer allowed testing of a range of very large circuits, larger than the ones for which it was possible to obtain open source files. The experimental results show that with SIMD acceleration and multicore, ZSIM gained a peak parallelisation factor of 300 on Intel Xeon Phi and 11 on Intel Xeon. With only SIMD enabled, ZSIM achieved a maximum parallelistion gain of 10 on Intel Xeon Phi and 4 on Intel Xeon. Furthermore, it was shown that this software architecture simulator running on a SIMD machine is much faster than, and can handle much bigger circuits than a widely used commercial simulator (Xilinx) running on a workstation. The performance achieved by ZSIM was also compared with similar pre-existing work on logic simulation targeting GPUs and supercomputers. It was shown that ZSIM simulator running on a Xeon Phi machine gives comparable simulation performance to the IBM Blue Gene supercomputer at very much lower cost. The experimental results have shown that the Xeon Phi is competitive with simulation on GPUs and allows the handling of much larger circuits than have been reported for GPU simulation. When targeting Xeon Phi architecture, the automatic cache management of the Xeon Phi, handles and manages the on-chip local store without any explicit mention of the local store being made in the architecture of the simulator itself. However, targeting GPUs, explicit cache management in program increases the complexity of the software architecture. Furthermore, one of the strongest points of the ZSIM simulator is its portability. Note that the same code was tested on both AMD and Xeon Phi machines. The same architecture that efficiently performs on Xeon Phi, was ported into a 64 core NUMA AMD Opteron. To conclude, the two main achievements are restated as following: The primary achievement of this work was proving that the ZSIM architecture was faster than previously published logic simulators on low cost platforms. The secondary achievement was the development of a synthetic testing suite that went beyond the scale range that was previously publicly available, based on prior work that showed the synthesis technique is valid.

Monte Carlo Simulation Of The Response Functions Of Cdte Detectors To Be Applied In X-ray Spectroscopy.

In this work, the energy response functions of a CdTe detector were obtained by Monte Carlo (MC) simulation in the energy range from 5 to 160keV, using the PENELOPE code. In the response calculations the carrier transport features and the detector resolution were included. The computed energy response function was validated through comparison with experimental results obtained with (241)Am and (152)Eu sources. In order to investigate the influence of the correction by the detector response at diagnostic energy range, x-ray spectra were measured using a CdTe detector (model XR-100T, Amptek), and then corrected by the energy response of the detector using the stripping procedure. Results showed that the CdTe exhibits good energy response at low energies (below 40keV), showing only small distortions on the measured spectra. For energies below about 80keV, the contribution of the escape of Cd- and Te-K x-rays produce significant distortions on the measured x-ray spectra. For higher energies, the most important correction is the detector efficiency and the carrier trapping effects. The results showed that, after correction by the energy response, the measured spectra are in good agreement with those provided by a theoretical model of the literature. Finally, our results showed that the detailed knowledge of the response function and a proper correction procedure are fundamental for achieving more accurate spectra from which quality parameters (i.e., half-value layer and homogeneity coefficient) can be determined.

Influence of intrapulpal pressure simulation on the bond strength of adhesive systems to dentin

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the influence of intrapulpal pressure simulation on the bonding effectiveness of etch & rinse and self-etch adhesives to dentin. Eighty sound human molars were distributed into eight groups, according to the permeability level of each sample, measured by an apparatus to assess hydraulic conductance (Lp). Thus, a similar mean permeability was achieved in each group. Three etch & rinse adhesives (Prime & Bond NT - PB, Single Bond -SB, and Excite - EX) and one self-etch system (Clearfil SE Bond - SE) were employed, varying the presence or absence of an intrapulpal pressure (IPP) simulation of 15 cmH2O. After adhesive and restorative procedures were carried out, the samples were stored in distilled water for 24 hours at 37°C, and taken for tensile bond strength (TBS) testing. Fracture analysis was performed using a light microscope at 40 X magnification. The data, obtained in MPa, were then submitted to the Kruskal-Wallis test ( a = 0.05). The results revealed that the TBS of SB and EX was significantly reduced under IPP simulation, differing from the TBS of PB and SE. Moreover, SE obtained the highest bond strength values in the presence of IPP. It could be concluded that IPP simulation can influence the bond strength of certain adhesive systems to dentin and should be considered when in vitro studies are conducted.

Evaluation of thermal simulation of households in the metropolitan region of São Paulo, Brazil

Abstract This paper aims at assessing the performance of a program of thermal simulation (Arquitrop) in different households in the city of Sao Paulo, Brazil. The households were selected for the Wheezing Project which followed up children under 2 years old to monitor the occurrence of respiratory diseases. The results show that in all three study households there is a good approximation between the observed and the simulated indoor temperatures. It was also observed a fairly consistent and realistic behavior between the simulated indoor and the outdoor temperatures, describing the Arquitrop model as an efficient estimator and good representative of the thermal behavior of households in the city of Sao Paulo. The worst simulation is linked to the poorest type of construction. This may be explained by the bad quality of the construction, which the Architrop could not simulate adequately

The Process of Simulation Authoring/Creation by Chemistry Teachers: A Service Learning Experience

Two case studies are presented to describe the process of public school teachers authoring and creating chemistry simulations. They are part of the Virtual Didactic Laboratory for Chemistry, a project developed by the School of the Future of the University of Sao Paulo. the documental analysis of the material produced by two groups of teachers reflects different selection process for both themes and problem-situations when creating simulations. The study demonstrates the potential for chemistry learning with an approach that takes students' everyday lives into account and is based on collaborative work among teachers and researches. Also, from the teachers' perspectives, the possibilities of interaction that a simulation offers for classroom activities are considered.

Study of the antimicrobial peptide indolicidin and a mutant in micelle medium by molecular dynamics simulation

The antimicrobial peptide indolicidin (IND) and the mutant CP10A in hydrated micelles were studied using molecular dynamics simulations in order to observe whether the molecular dynamics and experimental data could be sufficiently correlated and a detailed description of the interaction of the antimicrobial peptides with a model of the membrane provided by a hydrated micelle system could be obtained. In agreement with the experiments, the simulations showed that the peptides are located near the surface of the micelles. Peptide insertions agree with available experimental data, showing deeper insertion of the mutant compared with the peptide IND. Major insertion into the hydrophobic core of the micelle by all tryptophan and mutated residues of CP10A in relation to IND was observed. The charged residues of the terminus regions of both peptides present similar behavior, indicating that the major differences in the interactions with the micelles of the peptides IND and CP10A occur in the case of the hydrophobic residues.

Fossil groups in the Millennium Simulation Evolution of the brightest galaxies

Aims. We create a catalogue of simulated fossil groups and study their properties, in particular the merging histories of their first-ranked galaxies. We compare the simulated fossil group properties with those of both simulated non-fossil and observed fossil groups. Methods. Using simulations and a mock galaxy catalogue, we searched for massive (>5 x 10(13) h(-1) M-circle dot) fossil groups in the Millennium Simulation Galaxy Catalogue. In addition, we attempted to identify observed fossil groups in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey Data Release 6 using identical selection criteria. Results. Our predictions on the basis of the simulation data are: (a) fossil groups comprise about 5.5% of the total population of groups/clusters with masses larger than 5 x 10(13) h(-1) M-circle dot. This fraction is consistent with the fraction of fossil groups identified in the SDSS, after all observational biases have been taken into account; (b) about 88% of the dominant central objects in fossil groups are elliptical galaxies that have a median R-band absolute magnitude of similar to-23.5-5 log h, which is typical of the observed fossil groups known in the literature; (c) first-ranked galaxies of systems with M > 5 x 10(13) h(-1) M-circle dot, regardless of whether they are either fossil or non-fossil, are mainly formed by gas-poor mergers; (d) although fossil groups, in general, assembled most of their virial masses at higher redshifts in comparison with non-fossil groups, first-ranked galaxies in fossil groups merged later, i.e. at lower redshifts, compared with their non-fossil-group counterparts. Conclusions. We therefore expect to observe a number of luminous galaxies in the centres of fossil groups that show signs of a recent major merger.

Fossil groups in the Millennium simulation Their environment and its evolution

Context. Fossil systems are defined to be X- ray bright galaxy groups ( or clusters) with a two- magnitude difference between their two brightest galaxies within half the projected virial radius, and represent an interesting extreme of the population of galaxy agglomerations. However, the physical conditions and processes leading to their formation are still poorly constrained. Aims. We compare the outskirts of fossil systems with that of normal groups to understand whether environmental conditions play a significant role in their formation. We study the groups of galaxies in both, numerical simulations and observations. Methods. We use a variety of statistical tools including the spatial cross- correlation function and the local density parameter Delta(5) to probe differences in the density and structure of the environments of "" normal"" and "" fossil"" systems in the Millennium simulation. Results. We find that the number density of galaxies surrounding fossil systems evolves from greater than that observed around normal systems at z = 0.69, to lower than the normal systems by z = 0. Both fossil and normal systems exhibit an increment in their otherwise radially declining local density measure (Delta(5)) at distances of order 2.5 r(vir) from the system centre. We show that this increment is more noticeable for fossil systems than normal systems and demonstrate that this difference is linked to the earlier formation epoch of fossil groups. Despite the importance of the assembly time, we show that the environment is different for fossil and non- fossil systems with similar masses and formation times along their evolution. We also confirm that the physical characteristics identified in the Millennium simulation can also be detected in SDSS observations. Conclusions. Our results confirm the commonly held belief that fossil systems assembled earlier than normal systems but also show that the surroundings of fossil groups could be responsible for the formation of their large magnitude gap.

Combining Monte Carlo simulation and density-functional theory to describe the spectral changes of Na(2) in liquid helium

Spectral changes of Na(2) in liquid helium were studied using the sequential Monte Carlo-quantum mechanics method. Configurations composed by Na(2) surrounded by explicit helium atoms sampled from the Monte Carlo simulation were submitted to time-dependent density-functional theory calculations of the electronic absorption spectrum using different functionals. Attention is given to both line shift and line broadening. The Perdew, Burke, and Ernzerhof (PBE1PBE, also known as PBE0) functional, with the PBE1PBE/6-311++G(2d,2p) basis set, gives the spectral shift, compared to gas phase, of 500 cm(-1) for the allowed X (1)Sigma(+)(g) -> B (1)Pi(u) transition, in very good agreement with the experimental value (700 cm(-1)). For comparison, cluster calculations were also performed and the first X (1)Sigma(+)(g) -> A (1)Sigma(+)(u) transition was also considered.

Bilayer graphene dual-gate nanodevice: An ab initio simulation

We study the electronic transport properties of a dual-gated bilayer graphene nanodevice via first-principles calculations. We investigate the electric current as a function of gate length and temperature. Under the action of an external electrical field we show that even for gate lengths up 100 angstrom, a nonzero current is exhibited. The results can be explained by the presence of a tunneling regime due the remanescent states in the gap. We also discuss the conditions to reach the charge neutrality point in a system free of defects and extrinsic carrier doping.