Victims of War must be loyal to deserve protection: International law and national legislation on enemy aliens 1907-1918

In international law the internment of civilians has only been regulated in writing in the context of the 4th Geneva Convention of 1949. Nevertheless this did not mean that civilians were not protected by at least some rules of customary international law before that date and especially in World War I. Furthermore specialists of international law expected states – at least those considered to be part of the community of civilized nations – to continue to treat all men equal before the law even in wartime. As research already conducted (Bird, Panayi, Fischer) has shown, this was not the case during World War I. Based on these findings the presentation proposed here wants to look into the development of international law and into some national preparations for treating so called “enemy aliens” in the period before 1914 (Austria-Hungary, Australia, United Kingdom), in order to see to what extent principles of international law protecting civilians from the consequences of war can be detected in the pre-war preparations. As far as can be judged so far the issue of loyalty was central in this context. Looking at the war itself, the presentation proposed here will try to look at how far the principles of international law alluded to above continued to influence the policies on “enemy aliens” in the countries mentioned and to see, how the International Committee of the Red Cross tried to use them to legitimize and expand its protective policies in regard to civilians interned in belligerent as well as neutral countries throughout the war.

Translations of the Ottoman constitutional laws: the Wilayet Administrative Law, the Municipal Law and various other laws

Ottoman constitutional law of the 7th Dhil Hujjah, 1293 AH [December 24, 1876 AD] as amended. -- Regulations of the Chamber of deputies. -- Regulations of the Senate. -- Provisional law of administration of wilayets of the 13th March, 1329 AH [March 26, 1913 AD] as amended. -- Municipal law of the 27th Ramadhan, 1294 AH [October 5, 1877 AD] as amended. -- Law regulating chambers of commerce and industry, dated the 31st May, 1326 AH [June 13, 1910 AD]. -- Provisional law of expropriation on behalf of municipalities dated the 21st Kanun Thani, 1329 AH [February 3, 1914 AD]. -- Regulations of expropriation for public purposes, dated the 24th Tashrin Thani, 1295 AH [December 6, 1879 AD] as amended. -- The Press law of the 16th Tamuz, 1325 AH [July 29, 1910 AD] as amended.

Supplement to School law of California, 1921 : containing statutes pertaining to education enacted by the legislative session.

"Issued by the superintendent of public instruction."

Revised school laws and revised rules and regulations of the Department of Public Instruction of the territory of Hawaii, 1915.

Mode of access: Internet.

Ohio school laws in force April 16, 1900. Blank forms and directions to serve as a guide for school officers.

Published by L. D. Bonebrake, state commissioner of common schools.

Ohio school laws in force May 15, 1912, based on the general code of Ohio as amended to date. Blank forms and directions to serve as a guide for school officers and teachers.

Mode of access: Internet.

Public school laws of the state of Alabama : together with forms for teachers, officers and the Constitution of Alabama, and a revised list of county and city superintendents /

Includes index.

The amended school laws of Oregon, including amendments made by the seventeenth Legislative Assembly, together with the rules and regulations of the State Board of Education, blank forms for the use of school officers, the constitution of the state of Oregon, etc.

At head of title: Published by authority.

School law of California.

1923 issued only as supplement to 1921.

Statutes of Wisconsin relating to elementary and secondary schools : covering legislation enacted through ...

WI docs. no.: Ed.5:1978-

Compilation of the school laws of New Mexico containing laws and parts of laws relating to public schools.

N. M. State doc. call no.: J87.N6 F401.32 P37 1895

Compilation of the public school laws of New Mexico, 1915; containing sections 4807-5177 of the 1915 codification of the New Mexico statutes (annotated) relating to schools, school districts and state institutions; chapters 19, 29, 33, 36, 38, 45, 74,79, 81, 82, 88, and 89 of the session laws of 1915; and extracts from the state constitution relating to education.

Mode of access: Internet.

Ohio school laws, from revised statutes passed June 20th, 1879, to take effect January 1st, 1880, as amended up to April 19th, 1883, accompanied by general statues, Supreme court decisions, and explanatory notes, bearing on the management of schools and school property: to which are added parliamentary rules of order and a complete set of blank forms.

D. F. De Wolf, State Commissioner of Common Schools.