Identifizierung chemischer Transportinhibitoren zur Modulation (patho)biologischer Genprodukte

Die intrazelluläre Lokalisation von Proteinen und Makromolekülen unterliegt in Eukaryoten einer strengen Regulation. Insbesondere erlaubt die Kompartimentierung eukaryotischer Zellen in Zellkern und Zytoplasma den simultanen Ablauf räumlich getrennter biochemischer Reaktionen, und damit die unabhängige Regulation zellulärer Programme. Da trotz intensiver Forschungsbemühungen bis dato die molekularen Details sowie die (patho)biologische Bedeutung von Kern-Zytoplasma-Transportprozessen noch immer nicht vollkommen verstanden sind, wurde im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit ein Fokus auf die Identifizierung von chemischen Transportinhibitoren gelegt. Das zu diesem Zweck entwickelte Translokations-Biosensor-System basiert auf der Kombination von autofluoreszierenden Proteinen, sowie spezifisch ausgewählten Kernexport- und Kernimportsignalen. Nach Etablierung geeigneter Zellmodelle, die effizient und stabil die Translokations-Biosensoren exprimieren, wurde die 17 000 Substanzen umfassende Bibliothek der ChemBioNet-Initiative nach Kernexportinhibitoren mittels einer Fluoreszenzmikroskopie-basierten Hochdurchsatzanalyse-Plattform durchmustert. Zunächst wurden Translokations-Algorithmen, welche eine zuverlässige automatisierte Erkennung von Zellkern und Zytoplasma erlauben, optimiert. Im Folgenden konnten acht neue niedermolekulare Kernexport-Inhibitoren identifiziert werden, die sich in der Stärke, der Geschwindigkeit, sowie in der Beständigkeit der vermittelten Inhibition unterscheiden. Die Aktivität der Inhibitoren konnte auf den isolierten nukleären Exportsignalen (NES) von HIV-1 Rev und Survivin als auch auf den entsprechenden Volllängeproteinen mittels Mikroinjektionsexperimenten sowie durch umfassende in vitro und biochemische Methoden bestätigt werden. Zur Untersuchung der funktionellen Einheiten der Inhibitoren wurden homologe Substanzen auf Ihre Aktivität hin getestet. Dabei konnten für die Aktivität wichtige chemische Gruppen definiert werden. Alle Substanzen stellen neue Inhibitoren des Crm1-abhängigen Exports dar und zeigen keine nachweisbare NES-Selektivität. Interessanterweise konnte jedoch eine zytotoxische und Apoptose-induzierende Wirkung auf verschiedene Krebszellarten festgestellt werden. Da diese Wirkung unabhängig vom p53-Status der Tumorzellen ist und die Inhibitoren C3 und C5 die Vitalität nicht-maligner humaner Zellen signifikant weniger beeinträchtigen, wurden diese Substanzen zum internationalen Patent angemeldet. Da der nukleäre Export besonders für Tumorzellen einen wichtigen Überlebenssignalweg darstellt, könnte dessen reversible Hemmung ausgenutzt werden, um besonders in Kombination mit gängigen Krebstherapien eine therapeutisch relevante Tumorinhibition zu erzeugen. Eine weitere Anwendungsmöglichkeit der neuen Exportinhibitoren ist auf dem Gebiet der Infektionskrankheiten zu sehen, da auch die Aktivität des essentiellen HIV-1 Rev-Proteins inhibiert wird. Zusätzlich konnte in der Arbeit gezeigt werden, dass der zelluläre Kofaktor des Crm1-abhängigen Exports des HIV-1 Rev-Proteins, die RNA-Helikase DDX3, ein eigenes NES enthält. Der Nachweis einer direkten Interaktion des HIV-1 Rev- mit dem DDX3-Protein impliziert, dass multiple Angriffstellen für chemische Modulatoren hinsichtlich einer antiviralen Therapie gegeben sind. Da die Vielfalt des chemischen Strukturraums es unmöglich macht diesen experimentell vollständig zu durchmustern, wurden im Rahmen dieser Arbeit auch Naturstoffe als vielversprechende Wirkstoffquelle untersucht. Um zukünftig umfassend bioaktive Substanzen aus diesen hochkomplexen Stoffgemischen experimentell identifizieren zu können, wurde eine Fluoreszenzmikroskopie-basierte Hochdurchsatzanalyse-Plattform am Mainz Screening Center (MSC) etabliert. Damit konnte bereits ein weiterer, bisher unbekannter Exportinhibitor aus Cyphellopsis anomala identifiziert werden. Neben einer Anwendung dieser Substanz als chemisches Werkzeug zur Aufklärung der Regulation von Transportvorgängen, stellt sich auch die evolutionsbiologisch relevante Frage, wie es dem Pilzproduzenten gelingt die Blockierung des eigenen Kernexports zu umgehen. Weiterführende Projekte müssen sich neben der Aufklärung der molekularen Wirkmechanismen der gefundenen Substanzen mit der Identifizierung spezifischer chemischer „Funktionseinheiten“ beschäftigen. Neben einem verbesserten mechanistischen Verständnis von Transportvorgängen stellen die erarbeiteten Transportinhibitoren Vorstufen zur Weiterentwicklung möglicher Wirkstoffe dar. Die im Rahmen dieser Arbeit etablierte Technologie-Plattform und molekularen Werkzeuge stellen darüber hinaus eine wichtige Voraussetzung dar, um eine systematische Suche nach möglichen Wirkstoffen im Forschungsfeld der „Chemischen Biomedizin“ voranzutreiben.

Modulation of parvalbumin expression in the motor cortex of parkinsonian rats

Dopamine deficiency in Parkinson's disease leads to numerous molecular changes in basal ganglia. However, the consequences of these changes on the motor cortex remain unclear. Here we show that the immunoreactivity of parvalbumin, which is expressed in GABAergic interneurons, increases in the primary motor cortex of parkinsonian rats. This increase can be reversed by a subsequent lesion of the subthalamic nucleus. These results suggest that dopamine deficiency induces reversible changes in GABAergic cortical cells, which might be linked with parkinsonian symptoms.

Modulation of potassium channel function by methionine oxidation and reduction

Oxidation of amino acid residues in proteins can be caused by a variety of oxidizing agents normally produced by cells. The oxidation of methionine in proteins to methionine sulfoxide is implicated in aging as well as in pathological conditions, and it is a reversible reaction mediated by a ubiquitous enzyme, peptide methionine sulfoxide reductase. The reversibility of methionine oxidation suggests that it could act as a cellular regulatory mechanism although no such in vivo activity has been demonstrated. We show here that oxidation of a methionine residue in a voltage-dependent potassium channel modulates its inactivation. When this methionine residue is oxidized to methionine sulfoxide, the inactivation is disrupted, and it is reversed by coexpression with peptide methionine sulfoxide reductase. The results suggest that oxidation and reduction of methionine could play a dynamic role in the cellular signal transduction process in a variety of systems.

Modulation of cholecystokinin activity by albumin.

We found that a variety of cholecystokinin (CCK) receptor ligands bind to bovine serum albumin (BSA). This binding was rapid, fully reversible, temperature independent, of low affinity, and specific for BSA; it depended on the concentration of BSA, the chemical structure of the ligand, and the chemical composition of the incubation medium. BSA also decreased the binding of 125I-labeled CCK octapeptide (125I-CCK-8) to CCK receptors on pancreatic acini and membranes but increased the potency with which CCK-8 inhibited binding of 125I-CCK-8. These counterintuitive findings appeared to result from BSA altering the affinities of CCK-8 for different affinity states of the pancreatic CCK receptor. An alternate hypothesis is that BSA increased the efficacy of CCK-8 such that it bound to receptors and also caused biochemical changes in other receptors that reduced their ability to bind 125I-CCK-8. BSA enhanced the ability of CCK-8 to stimulate amylase secretion from pancreatic acini and to cause contraction of dispersed gastric smooth muscle cells. Thus, CCK can bind to BSA, and the BSA-CCK complex has substantially different activities from the free, uncomplexed hormone.

Dynamic and regulated association of caveolin with lipid bodies: Modulation of lipid body motility and function by a dominant negative mutant

Caveolins are a crucial component of caveolae but have also been localized to the Golgi complex, and, under some experimental conditions, to lipid bodies (LBs). The physiological relevance and dynamics of LB association remain unclear. We now show that endogenous caveolin-1 and caveolin-2 redistribute to LBs in lipid loaded A431 and FRT cells. Association with LBs is regulated and reversible; removal of fatty acids causes caveolin to rapidly leave the lipid body. We also show by subcellular fractionation, light and electron microscopy that during the first hours of liver regeneration, caveolins show a dramatic redistribution from the cell surface to the newly formed LBs. At later stages of the regeneration process (when LBs are still abundant), the levels of caveolins in LBs decrease dramatically. As a model system to study association of caveolins with LBs we have used brefeldin A (BFA). BFA causes rapid redistribution of endogenous caveolins to LBs and this association was reversed upon BFA washout. Finally, we have used a dominant negative LB-associated caveolin mutant (cav(DGV)) to study LB formation and to examine its effect on LB function. We now show that the cav(DGV) mutant inhibits microtubule-dependent LB motility and blocks the reversal of lipid accumulation in LBs.

Modulation of higher-plant NAD(H)-dependent glutamate dehydrogenase activity in transgenic tobacco via alteration of beta subunit levels

Glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH; EC 1.4.1.2-1.4.1.4) catalyses in vitro the reversible amination of 2-oxoglutarate to glutamate. In vascular plants the in vivo direction(s) of the GDH reaction and hence the physiological role(s) of this enzyme remain obscure. A phylogenetic analysis identified two clearly separated groups of higher-plant GDH genes encoding either the alpha- or beta-subunit of the GDH holoenzyme. To help clarify the physiological role(s) of GDH, tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) was transformed with either an antisense or sense copy of a beta-subunit gene, and transgenic plants recovered with between 0.5- and 34-times normal leaf GDH activity. This large modulation of GDH activity (shown to be via alteration of beta-subunit levels) had little effect on leaf ammonium or the leaf free amino acid pool, except that a large increase in GDH activity was associated with a significant decrease in leaf Asp (similar to 51%, P=0.0045). Similarly, plant growth and development were not affected, suggesting that a large modulation of GDH beta-subunit titre does not affect plant viability under the ideal growing conditions employed. Reduction of GDH activity and protein levels in an antisense line was associated with a large increase in transcripts of a beta-subunit gene, suggesting that the reduction in beta-subunit levels might have been due to translational inhibition. In another experiment designed to detect post-translational up-regulation of GDH activity, GDH over-expressing plants were subjected to prolonged dark-stress. GDH activity increased, but this was found to be due more likely to resistance of the GDH protein to stress-induced proteolysis, rather than to post-translational up-regulation.

Modulation of sarcoplasmic/endoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+)-ATPase activity and oxidative modification during the development of adjuvant arthritis

Adjuvant arthritis (AA) was induced by intradermal administration of Mycobacterium butyricum to the tail of Lewis rats. In sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) of skeletal muscles, we investigated the development of AA. SR Ca(2+)-ATPase (SERCA) activity decreased on day 21, suggesting possible conformational changes in the transmembrane part of the enzyme, especially at the site of the calcium binding transmembrane part. These events were associated with an increased level of protein carbonyls, a decrease in cysteine SH groups, and alterations in SR membrane fluidity. There was no alteration in the nucleotide binding site at any time point of AA, as detected by a FITC fluorescence marker. Some changes observed on day 21 appeared to be reversible, as indicated by SERCA activity, cysteine SH groups, SR membrane fluidity, protein carbonyl content and fluorescence of an NCD-4 marker specific for the calcium binding site. The reversibility may represent adaptive mechanisms of AA, induced by higher relative expression of SERCA, oxidation of cysteine, nitration of tyrosine and presence of acidic phospholipids such as phosphatidic acid. Nitric oxide may regulate cytoplasmic Ca(2+) level through conformational alterations of SERCA, and decreasing levels of calsequestrin in SR may also play regulatory role in SERCA activity and expression.

Reasons For Brazilian Women To Switch From Different Contraceptives To Long-acting Reversible Contraceptives.

Long-acting reversible contraceptives (LARCs) include the copper-releasing intrauterine device (IUD), the levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system (LNG-IUS) and implants. Despite the high contraceptive efficacy of LARCs, their prevalence of use remains low in many countries. The objective of this study was to assess the main reasons for switching from contraceptive methods requiring daily or monthly compliance to LARC methods within a Brazilian cohort. Women of 18-50 years of age using different contraceptives and wishing to switch to a LARC method answered a questionnaire regarding their motivations for switching from their current contraceptive. Continuation rates were evaluated 1 year after method initiation. Sample size was calculated at 1040 women. Clinical performance was evaluated by life table analysis. The cutoff date for analysis was May 23, 2013. Overall, 1167 women were interviewed; however, after 1 year of use, the medical records of only 1154 women were available for review. The main personal reason for switching, as reported by the women, was fear of becoming pregnant while the main medical reasons were nausea and vomiting and unscheduled bleeding. No pregnancies occurred during LARC use, and the main reasons for discontinuation were expulsion (in the case of the IUD and LNG-IUS) and a decision to undergo surgical sterilization (in the case of the etonogestrel-releasing implant). Continuation rate was ~95.0/100 women/year for the three methods. Most women chose a LARC method for its safety and for practical reasons, and after 1 year of use, most women continued with the method.

Down-regulation Of Slc8a1 As A Putative Apoptosis-evasion Mechanism By Modulation Of Calcium Levels In Penile Carcinoma.

The SLC8A1 gene, which encodes the Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchanger, plays a key role in calcium homeostasis. Our previous gene expression oligoarray data revealed SLC8A1 underexpression in penile carcinoma (PeCa). The aim of this study was to investigate whether the dysregulation of SLC8A1 expression is associated with apoptosis and cell proliferation in PeCa, via modulation of calcium concentration. The underlying mechanisms of SLC8A1 underexpression were also explored, focusing on copy number alteration and microRNA. Transcript levels of SLC8A1 gene and miR-223 were evaluated by quantitative PCR, comparing PeCa samples with normal glans tissues. SLC8A1 copy number was evaluated by microarray-based comparative genomic hybridization (array-CGH). Caspase-3 and Ki-67 immunostaining, as well as calcium distribution by Laser Ablation Imaging Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry [LA(i)-ICP-MS], were investigated in both normal and tumor samples. Confirming our previous data, SLC8A1 underexpression was detected in PeCa samples (P=0.001) and was not associated with gene copy number loss. In contrast, overexpression of miR-223 (P=0.002) was inversely correlated with SLC8A1 (P=0.015, r=-0.426), its putative repressor. In addition, SLC8A1 underexpression was associated with decreased calcium distribution, high Ki-67 and low caspase-3 immunoexpression in PeCa when compared with normal tissues. Down-regulation of the SLC8A1 gene, most likely mediated by its regulator miR-223, can lead to reduced calcium levels in PeCa and, consequently, to suppression of apoptosis and increased tumor cell proliferation. These data suggest that the miR-223-NCX1-calcium-signaling axis may represent a potential therapeutic approach in PeCa.

Effect Of Pain Chronification And Chronic Pain On An Endogenous Pain Modulation Circuit In Rats.

We tested the hypothesis that chronic pain development (pain chronification) and ongoing chronic pain (chronic pain) reduce the activity and induce plastic changes in an endogenous analgesia circuit, the ascending nociceptive control. An important mechanism mediating this form of endogenous analgesia, referred to as capsaicin-induced analgesia, is its dependence on nucleus accumbens μ-opioid receptor mechanisms. Therefore, we also investigated whether pain chronification and chronic pain alter the requirement for nucleus accumbens μ-opioid receptor mechanisms in capsaicin-induced analgesia. We used an animal model of pain chronification in which daily subcutaneous prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) injections into the rat's hind paw for 14 days, referred to as the induction period of persistent hyperalgesia, induce a long-lasting state of nociceptor sensitization referred to as the maintenance period of persistent hyperalgesia, that lasts for at least 30 days following the cessation of the PGE2 treatment. The nociceptor hypersensitivity was measured by the shortening of the time interval for the animal to respond to a mechanical stimulation of the hind paw. We found a significant reduction in the duration of capsaicin-induced analgesia during the induction and maintenance period of persistent mechanical hyperalgesia. Intra-accumbens injection of the μ-opioid receptor selective antagonist Cys(2),Tyr(3),Orn(5),Pen(7)amide (CTOP) 10 min before the subcutaneous injection of capsaicin into the rat's fore paw blocked capsaicin-induced analgesia. Taken together, these findings indicate that pain chronification and chronic pain reduce the duration of capsaicin-induced analgesia, without affecting its dependence on nucleus accumbens μ-opioid receptor mechanisms. The attenuation of endogenous analgesia during pain chronification and chronic pain suggests that endogenous pain circuits play an important role in the development and maintenance of chronic pain.

Hemodynamic, morphometric and autonomic patterns in hypertensive rats - renin-angiotensin system modulation

BACKGROUND: Spontaneously hypertensive rats develop left ventricular hypertrophy, increased blood pressure and blood pressure variability, which are important determinants of heart damage, like the activation of renin-angiotensin system. AIMS: To investigate the effects of the time-course of hypertension over 1) hemodynamic and autonomic patterns (blood pressure; blood pressure variability; heart rate); 2) left ventricular hypertrophy; and 3) local and systemic Renin-angiotensin system of the spontaneously hypertensive rats. METHODS: Male spontaneously hypertensive rats were randomized into two groups: young (n=13) and adult (n=12). Hemodynamic signals (blood pressure, heart rate), blood pressure variability (BPV) and spectral analysis of the autonomic components of blood pressure were analyzed. LEFT ventricular hypertrophy was measured by the ratio of LV mass to body weight (mg/g), by myocyte diameter (μm) and by relative fibrosis area (RFA, %). ACE and ACE2 activities were measured by fluorometry (UF/min), and plasma renin activity (PRA) was assessed by a radioimmunoassay (ng/mL/h). Cardiac gene expressions of Agt, Ace and Ace2 were quantified by RT-PCR (AU). RESULTS: The time-course of hypertension in spontaneously hypertensive rats increased BPV and reduced the alpha index in adult spontaneously hypertensive rats. Adult rats showed increases in left ventricular hypertrophy and in RFA. Compared to young spontaneously hypertensive rats, adult spontaneously hypertensive rats had lower cardiac ACE and ACE2 activities, and high levels of PRA. No change was observed in gene expression of Renin-angiotensin system components. CONCLUSIONS: The observed autonomic dysfunction and modulation of Renin-angiotensin system activity are contributing factors to end-organ damage in hypertension and could be interacting. Our findings suggest that the management of hypertensive disease must start before blood pressure reaches the highest stable levels and the consequent established end-organ damage is reached.

5-HT1A autoreceptor modulation of locomotor activity induced by nitric oxide in the rat dorsal raphe nucleus

The dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN) is the origin of ascending serotonergic projections and is considered to be an important component of the brain circuit that mediates anxiety- and depression-related behaviors. A large fraction of DRN serotonin-positive neurons contain nitric oxide (NO). Disruption of NO-mediated neurotransmission in the DRN by NO synthase inhibitors produces anxiolytic- and antidepressant-like effects in rats and also induces nonspecific interference with locomotor activity. We investigated the involvement of the 5-HT1A autoreceptor in the locomotor effects induced by NO in the DRN of male Wistar rats (280-310 g, N = 9-10 per group). The NO donor 3-morpholinosylnomine hydrochloride (SIN-1, 150, and 300 nmol) and the NO scavenger S-3-carboxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycine (carboxy-PTIO, 0.1-3.0 nmol) were injected into the DRN of rats immediately before they were exposed to the open field for 10 min. To evaluate the involvement of the 5-HT1A receptor and the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) glutamate receptor in the locomotor effects of NO, animals were pretreated with the 5-HT1A receptor agonist 8-hydroxy-2-(di-n-propylamino)tetralin (8-OH-DPAT, 8 nmol), the 5-HT1A receptor antagonist N-(2-[4-(2-methoxyphenyl)-1-piperazinyl]ethyl)-N-2-pyridinyl-cyclohexanecarboxamide maleate (WAY-100635, 0.37 nmol), and the NMDA receptor antagonist DL-2-amino-7-phosphonoheptanoic acid (AP7, 1 nmol), followed by microinjection of SIN-1 into the DRN. SIN-1 increased the distance traveled (mean ± SEM) in the open-field test (4431 ± 306.1 cm; F7,63 = 2.44, P = 0.028) and this effect was blocked by previous 8-OH-DPAT (2885 ± 490.4 cm) or AP7 (3335 ± 283.5 cm) administration (P < 0.05, Duncan test). These results indicate that 5-HT1A receptor activation and/or facilitation of glutamate neurotransmission can modulate the locomotor effects induced by NO in the DRN.

Modulation of peritoneal macrophage activity by the saturation state of the fatty acid moiety of phosphatidylcholine

To determine the effects of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids in phosphatidylcholine (PC) on macrophage activity, peritoneal lavage cells were cultured in the presence of phosphatidylcholine rich in saturated or unsaturated fatty acids (sat PC and unsat PC, respectively), both used at concentrations of 32 and 64 µM. The treatment of peritoneal macrophages with 64 µM unsat PC increased the production of hydrogen peroxide by 48.3% compared to control (148.3 ± 16.3 vs 100.0 ± 1.8%, N = 15), and both doses of unsat PC increased adhesion capacity by nearly 50%. Moreover, 64 µM unsat PC decreased neutral red uptake by lysosomes by 32.5% compared to the untreated group (67.5 ± 6.8 vs 100.0 ± 5.5%, N = 15), while both 32 and 64 µM unsat PC decreased the production of lipopolysaccharide-elicited nitric oxide by 30.4% (13.5 ± 2.6 vs 19.4 ± 2.5 µM) and 46.4% (10.4 ± 3.1 vs 19.4 ± 2.5 µM), respectively. Unsat PC did not affect anion production in non-stimulated cells or phagocytosis of unopsonized zymosan particles. A different result pattern was obtained for macrophages treated with sat PC. Phorbol 12-miristate 13-acetate-elicited superoxide production and neutral red uptake were decreased by nearly 25% by 32 and 64 µM sat PC, respectively. Sat PC did not affect nitric oxide or hydrogen peroxide production, adhesion capacity or zymosan phagocytosis. Thus, PC modifies macrophage activity, but this effect depends on cell activation state, fatty acid saturation and esterification to PC molecule and PC concentration. Taken together, these results indicate that the fatty acid moiety of PC modulates macrophage activity and, consequently, is likely to affect immune system regulation in vivo.

Modulation of extracellular matrix by nutritional hepatotrophic factors in thioacetamide-induced liver cirrhosis in the rat

Nutritional substances associated to some hormones enhance liver regeneration when injected intraperitoneally, being denominated hepatotrophic factors (HF). Here we verified if a solution of HF (glucose, vitamins, salts, amino acids, glucagon, insulin, and triiodothyronine) can revert liver cirrhosis and how some extracellular matrices are affected. Cirrhosis was induced for 14 weeks in 45 female Wistar rats (200 mg) by intraperitoneal injections of thioacetamide (200 mg/kg). Twenty-five rats received intraperitoneal HF twice a day for 10 days (40 mL·kg-1·day-1) and 20 rats received physiological saline. Fifteen rats were used as control. The HF applied to cirrhotic rats significantly: a) reduced the relative mRNA expression of the genes: Col-α1 (-53%), TIMP-1 (-31.7%), TGF-β1 (-57.7%), and MMP-2 (-41.6%), whereas Plau mRNA remained unchanged; b) reduced GGT (-43.1%), ALT (-17.6%), and AST (-12.2%) serum levels; c) increased liver weight (11.3%), and reduced liver collagen (-37.1%), regenerative nodules size (-22.1%), and fibrous septum thickness. Progranulin protein (immunohistochemistry) and mRNA (in situ hybridization) were found in fibrous septa and areas of bile duct proliferation in cirrhotic livers. Concluding, HF improved the histology and serum biochemistry of liver cirrhosis, with an important reduction of interstitial collagen and increased extracelullar matrix degradation by reducing profibrotic gene expression.

Modulation of post-coital dopaminergic tone by prior parity

The aim of this study was to investigate the possible effects of reproductive experience on dopaminergic profile in three different brain tissues, hypothalamus, striatum and cortex in rats on 7th-8th day of pregnancy during the light-dark shift (between 1700-1900h). Results showed that in hypothalamus, dopamine levels increased and DOPAC/DA decreased as a function of parity. In cortex, no differences were observed. In striata, the haloperidol-induced HVA and HVA/DA increases were less intense in experienced animals. These findings suggested that reproductive experience produced functional central changes during pregnancy, with different neurochemical responses depending on the brain region.