Patterns of rDNA and telomeric sequences diversification: contribution to repetitive DNA organization in Phyllostomidae bats

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Origin and distribution of AT-rich repetitive DNA families in Triatoma infestans (Heteroptera)

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)

Repetitive DNA chromosomal organization in the cricket Cycloptiloides americanus: a case of the unusual X(1)X(2)0 sex chromosome system in Orthoptera

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Repetitive DNA sequences and evolution of ZZ/ZW sex chromosomes in characidium (teleostei: characiformes)

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Tandem repetitive DNA: Stabilität und Wirkung auf die Genexpression im transgenen System

Zusammenfassung In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden unterschiedliche Eigenschaften von tandem repetitiver DNA (trDNA) analysiert. Drei der untersuchten trDNA-Familien (Cla-Elemente, Alu-Elemente, 1,688-Satelliten-DNA) stammen aus der genomischen DNA von Insekten, während ein trDNA-Cluster artifiziell aus Hsp70 Promotoren hergestellt wurde. Untersucht wurde die Stabilität dieser trDNA-Sequenzfamilien innerhalb eines Plasmidvektors in E. coli bzw. nach Integration der trDNA auch im Genom von D. melanogaster. Der Schwerpunkt der Arbeit liegt jedoch in der Analyse des Einflusses von trDNA auf die Expression eines benachbarten Reportergens in D. melanogaster.Ziel der Untersuchungen zur Stabilität war es, Eigenschaften von trDNA-Clustern und Mechanismen aufzuzeigen, die die Stabilität derselben in E. coli und im Genom von D. melanogaster beeinflussen. Mit Ausnahme der Alu-Elemente zeigen alle trDNA-Familien eine deutliche Instabilität in E. coli. Am Beispiel der Cla-Elemente wurde gezeigt, daß spezifische Eigenschaften der trDNA-Familie, wie etwa die sequenzbedingte Krümmung der Helixachse, keinen Einfluß auf die Stabilität des trDNA-Clusters haben, sondern die Orientierung des trDNA-Clusters innerhalb des Vektors ausschlaggebend ist. Ein entscheidender Faktor könnte die Orientierung des trDNA-Clusters relativ zur Wanderungsrichtung der Replikationsgabel in E. coli sein. Am Beispiel des trDNA-Clusters aus artifiziellen Hsp70 Promotoren konnte gezeigt werden, daß verschiedene Rekombinationssysteme an der Instabilität in E. coli beteiligt sind. Die meisten beobachteten Deletionen von trDNA sind RecA-abhängig. Zusätzlich findet jedoch in einem kleinen Teil der Plasmide auch eine RecA-unabhängige Rekombination statt. Sowohl in E. coli als auch in D. melanogaster wurde als vorherrschender Mechanismus der trDNA-Instabilität die homologe Rekombination identifiziert. TrDNA-Cluster, die in E. coli deutlich instabil sind, können jedoch im Genom von D. melanogaster weitgehend stabil sein. Auch Faktoren, die in E. coli die Stabilität eines trDNA-Clusters beeinflussen, wie etwa die Orientierung, zeigen in D. melanogaster keinen Einfluß auf die Stabilität der trDNA-Cluster. Ergebnisse aus Stabilitätsuntersuchungen in E. coli können damit nicht ohne Überprüfung auf andere Organismen übertragen werden. Im Hauptteil der Arbeit sollte geklärt werden, ob trDNA generell die Expression benachbarter Gene beeinflußt und welche Eigenschaften der trDNA für diesen inhibitorischen oder stimulierenden Effekt verantwortlich sind. Keine der untersuchten trDNA-Familien zeigt einen inhibitorischen Effekt auf ein benachbartes Reportergen. Entgegen dem Modell von Dorer und Henikoff (1994) führen trDNA-Cluster nicht per se zu der Entstehung von Heterochromatin. Die Ergebnisse der vorliegenden Arbeit zeigen, daß sowohl ein trDNA-Cluster aus Cla-Elementen als auch aus Hsp70 Promotor-Elementen eine deutliche Steigerung der Expression des miniwhite-Reportergens bewirken. Diese Steigerung ist für beide trDNA-Familien unabhängig von der chromosomalen Lage des Transgens im Euchromatin. In beiden Fällen ist der Effekt von der Orientierung des trDNA-Clusters abhängig und verstärkt sich mit wachsender Kopienzahl der trDNA-Einheiten. Während eines der trDNA-Cluster aus trDNA-Einheiten besteht, die bekanntermaßen eine Promotoraktivität aufweisen (Hsp70 Promotoren), war für die Cla-Elemente kein Einfluß auf die Expression eines benachbarten Gens bekannt. Damit wurde für eine trDNA-Familie aus Chironomus nachgewiesen, daß sie auf ein benachbartes Gen ähnlich wirkt wie zusätzliche Promotoren. Die experimentellen Befunde unterstützen ein Modell, demzufolge die Cla-Elemente in gleicher Weise wie tandem repetitive Promotoren auf ein benachbartes Gen expressionssteigernd wirken. Die TATA-Box ist für das Modell ein wichtiges Strukturelement, da diese in beiden expressionssteigernden DNA-Sequenzen der trDNA-Cluster vorkommt und ausschließlich in einer Orientierung wirkt. Das Modell besagt, daß durch die Verbindung einer offenen Chromatinstruktur mit korrekt orientierten Bindungsstellen für TBP der Aufbau von vollständigen Transkriptionskomplexen an den tandem repetitiven Promotoren initiiert wird. Einer Perlenschnur ähnlich wären die Transkriptionskomplexe direkt verfügbar, nachdem ein Transkriptionskomplex den Promotor zur Transkription verlassen hat (Abb. 32). Dies würde zu der beobachteten Steigerung der Expression des Reportergens sowohl durch die tandem repetitiven Hsp70 Promotoren als auch durch die Cla-Elemente führen.

RELATIONSHIP OF MOUSE IMMUNOGLOBULIN GENES TO INVERTED REPETITIVE DNA SEQUENCES

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship of immunoglobulin genes, more specifically the C regions, to the inverted repetitive sequences found in the mouse genome. Total mRNA as well as mRNA for light chain kappa was purified from mouse plasmacytoma MOPC 321 cells. Complementary DNA molecules were synthesized from the mRNA templates and hybridized to DNA fractionated on hydroxyapatite columns. This fractionation separates DNA according to the presence of inverted repetitive sequences which will be retained by hydroxyapatite while the remaining fraction will be unbound.^ The results obtained during the course of this investigation suggested the following conclusions. Firstly, it was shown that inverted sequences were not found within the transcribed DNA region. Secondly, inverted sequences are not found within the kappa gene. And finally, it was shown that the inverted sequences may not be representative of all the sequences found in MOPC 321 DNA. ^

Integrated pararetroviral sequences define a unique class of dispersed repetitive DNA in plants

Although integration of viral DNA into host chromosomes occurs regularly in bacteria and animals, there are few reported cases in plants, and these involve insertion at only one or a few sites. Here, we report that pararetrovirus-like sequences have integrated repeatedly into tobacco chromosomes, attaining a copy number of ≈103. Insertion apparently occurred by illegitimate recombination. From the sequences of 22 independent insertions recovered from a healthy plant, an 8-kilobase genome encoding a previously uncharacterized pararetrovirus that does not contain an integrase function could be assembled. Preferred boundaries of the viral inserts may correspond to recombinogenic gaps in open circular viral DNA. An unusual feature of the integrated viral sequences is a variable tandem repeat cluster, which might reflect defective genomes that preferentially recombine into plant DNA. The recurrent invasion of pararetroviral DNA into tobacco chromosomes demonstrates that viral sequences can contribute significantly to plant genome evolution.

Repetitive-DNA elements are similarly distributed on Caenorhabditis elegans autosomes

The positions of ≈4,800 individual miniature inverted-repeat transposable element (MITE)-like repeats from four families were mapped on the Caenorhabditis elegans chromosomes. These families represent 1–2% of the total sequence of the organism. The four MITE families (Cele1, Cele2, Cele14, and Cele42) displayed distinct chromosomal distribution profiles. For example, the Cele14 MITEs were observed clustering near the ends of the autosomes. In contrast, the Cele2 MITEs displayed an even distribution through the central autosome domains, with no evidence for clustering at the ends. Both the number of elements and the distribution patterns of each family were conserved on all five C. elegans autosomes. The distribution profiles indicate chromosomal polarity and suggest that the current genetic and physical maps of chromosomes II, III, and X are inverted with respect to the other chromosomes. The degree of conservation of both the number and distribution of these elements on the five autosomes suggests a role in defining specific chromosomal domains.

Instability of repetitive DNA sequences: The role of replication in multiple mechanisms

Rearrangements between tandem sequence homologies of various lengths are a major source of genomic change and can be deleterious to the organism. These rearrangements can result in either deletion or duplication of genetic material flanked by direct sequence repeats. Molecular genetic analysis of repetitive sequence instability in Escherichia coli has provided several clues to the underlying mechanisms of these rearrangements. We present evidence for three mechanisms of RecA-independent sequence rearrangements: simple replication slippage, sister-chromosome exchange-associated slippage, and single-strand annealing. We discuss the constraints of these mechanisms and contrast their properties with RecA-dependent homologous recombination. Replication plays a critical role in the two slipped misalignment mechanisms, and difficulties in replication appear to trigger rearrangements via all these mechanisms.

Characterization of repetitive DNA in the Mycoplasma genitalium genome: possible role in the generation of antigenic variation.

We have characterized a family of repetitive DNA elements with homology to the MgPa cellular adhesion operon of Mycoplasma genitalium, a bacterium that has the smallest known genome of any free-living organism. One element, 2272 bp in length and flanked by DNA with no homology to MgPa, was completely sequenced. At least four others were partially sequenced. The complete element is a composite of six regions. Five of these regions show sequence similarity with nonadjacent segments of genes of the MgPa operon. The sixth region, located near the center of the element, is an A+T-rich sequence that has only been found in this repeat family. Open reading frames are present within the five individual regions showing sequence homology to MgPa and the adjacent open reading frame 3 (ORF3) gene. However, termination codons are found between adjacent regions of homology to the MgPa operon and in the A+T-rich sequence. Thus, these repetitive elements do not appear to be directly expressible protein coding sequences. The sequence of one region from five different repetitive elements was compared with the homologous region of the MgPa gene from the type strain G37 and four newly isolated M. genitalium strains. Recombination between repetitive elements of strain G37 and the MgPa operon can explain the majority of polymorphisms within our partial sequences of the MgPa genes of the new isolates. Therefore, we propose that the repetitive elements of M. genitalium provide a reservoir of sequence that contributes to antigenic variation in proteins of the MgPa cellular adhesion operon.

Mutations in the MSH3 gene preferentially lead to deletions within tracts of simple repetitive DNA in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Eukaryotic genomes contain tracts of DNA in which a single base or a small number of bases are repeated (microsatellites). Mutations in the yeast DNA mismatch repair genes MSH2, PMS1, and MLH1 increase the frequency of mutations for normal DNA sequences and destabilize microsatellites. Mutations of human homologs of MSH2, PMS1, and MLH1 also cause microsatellite instability and result in certain types of cancer. We find that a mutation in the yeast gene MSH3 that does not substantially affect the rate of spontaneous mutations at several loci increases microsatellite instability about 40-fold, preferentially causing deletions. We suggest that MSH3 has different substrate specificities than the other mismatch repair proteins and that the human MSH3 homolog (MRP1) may be mutated in some tumors with microsatellite instability.

Repetitive DNA fragments as taxonomic markers for {\it Penaeus\/} sibling taxa (Decapoda: Dendrobranchiata: Penaeidae) from the southern terminus of the Florida peninsula, U.S.A.

Sympatric populations of P. brasiliensis and P. duorarum from Biscayne Bay, Florida, revealed species-specific satellite DNA organizational patterns with the restriction endonuclease EcoRI. The species-specific satellite DNA patterns can be explained as resulting from differential amplification/deletion events having altered monomer arrays after the divergence of these two species. Two discontinuous populations of P. duorarum (Biscayne Bay and Dry Tortugas) were found to exhibit distinct EcoRI satellite fragment patterns; BamHI repetitive fragments specific to the Dry Tortugas P. duorarum population were also detected. In addition, the evolutionary conservation of the Penaeus (Farfantepenaeus) satellites was investigated. The putative conservation of sequences related to one cloned P. duorarum satellite monomer unit suggests that the FTR satellite DNA family may not only be of use as a genome tag to distinguish between sibling and cryptic Penaeus species but may also serve as a probe to better understand decapod crustacean genome organization and evolution. ^

High-efficiency silencing of a β-glucuronidase gene in rice is correlated with repetitive transgene structure but is independent of DNA methylation

Two transgenic callus lines of rice, stably expressing a β-glucuronidase (GUS) gene, were supertransformed with a set of constructs designed to silence the resident GUS gene. An inverted-repeat (i/r) GUS construct, designed to produce mRNA with self-complementarity, was much more effective than simple sense and antisense constructs at inducing silencing. Supertransforming rice calluses with a direct-repeat (d/r) construct, although not as effective as those with the i/r construct, was also substantially more effective in silencing the resident GUS gene than the simple sense and antisense constructs. DNA hybridisation analyses revealed that every callus line supertransformed with either simple sense or antisense constructs, and subsequently showing GUS silencing, had the silence-inducing transgenes integrated into the plant genome in inverted-repeat configurations. The silenced lines containing i/r and d/r constructs did not necessarily have inverted-repeat T-DNA insertions. There was significant methylation of the GUS sequences in most of the silenced lines but not in the unsilenced lines. However, demethylation treatment of silenced lines with 5-azacytidine did not reverse the post-transcriptional gene silencing (PTGS) of GUS. Whereas the levels of RNA specific to the resident GUS gene were uniformly low in the silenced lines, RNA specific to the inducer transgenes accumulated to a substantial level, and the majority of the i/r RNA was unpolyadenylated. Altogether, these results suggest that both sense- and antisense-mediated gene suppression share a similar molecular basis, that unpolyadenylated RNA plays an important role in PTGS, and that methylation is not essential for PTGS.

A tandemly repetitive centromeric DNA sequence of the fish Hoplias malabaricus (Characiformes : Erythrinidae) is derived from 5S rDNA

A substantial fraction of the eukaryotic genome consists of repetitive DNA sequences that include satellites, minisatellites, microsatellites, and transposable elements. Although extensively studied for the past three decades, the molecular forces that generate, propagate and maintain repetitive DNAs in the genomes are still discussed. To further understand the dynamics and the mechanisms of evolution of repetitive DNAs in vertebrate genome, we searched for repetitive sequences in the genome of the fish species Hoplias malabaricus. A satellite sequence, named 5SHindIII-DNA, which has a conspicuous similarity with 5S rRNA genes and spacers was identified. FISH experiments showed that the 5S rRNA bona fide gene repeats were clustered in the interstitial position of two chromosome pairs of H. malabaricus, while the satellite 5SHindIII-DNA sequences were clustered in the centromeric position in nine chromosome pairs of the species. The presence of the 5SHindIII-DNA sequences in the centromeres of several chromosomes indicates that this satellite family probably escaped from the selective pressure that maintains the structure and organization of the 5S rDNA repeats and become disperse into the genome. Although it is not feasible to explain how this sequence has been maintained in the centromeric regions, it is possible to hypothesize that it may be involved in some structural or functional role of the centromere organization.