Étude du cortex prémoteur et préfrontal lors de la prise de décision pendant l'intégration temporelle des informations

Une variété de modèles sur le processus de prise de décision dans divers contextes présume que les sujets accumulent les évidences sensorielles, échantillonnent et intègrent constamment les signaux pour et contre des hypothèses alternatives. L'intégration continue jusqu'à ce que les évidences en faveur de l'une des hypothèses dépassent un seuil de critère de décision (niveau de preuve exigé pour prendre une décision). De nouveaux modèles suggèrent que ce processus de décision est plutôt dynamique; les différents paramètres peuvent varier entre les essais et même pendant l’essai plutôt que d’être un processus statique avec des paramètres qui ne changent qu’entre les blocs d’essais. Ce projet de doctorat a pour but de démontrer que les décisions concernant les mouvements d’atteinte impliquent un mécanisme d’accumulation temporelle des informations sensorielles menant à un seuil de décision. Pour ce faire, nous avons élaboré un paradigme de prise de décision basée sur un stimulus ambigu afin de voir si les neurones du cortex moteur primaire (M1), prémoteur dorsal (PMd) et préfrontal (DLPFc) démontrent des corrélats neuronaux de ce processus d’accumulation temporelle. Nous avons tout d’abord testé différentes versions de la tâche avec l’aide de sujets humains afin de développer une tâche où l’on observe le comportement idéal des sujets pour nous permettre de vérifier l’hypothèse de travail. Les données comportementales chez l’humain et les singes des temps de réaction et du pourcentage d'erreurs montrent une augmentation systématique avec l'augmentation de l'ambigüité du stimulus. Ces résultats sont cohérents avec les prédictions des modèles de diffusion, tel que confirmé par une modélisation computationnelle des données. Nous avons, par la suite, enregistré des cellules dans M1, PMd et DLPFc de 2 singes pendant qu'ils s'exécutaient à la tâche. Les neurones de M1 ne semblent pas être influencés par l'ambiguïté des stimuli mais déchargent plutôt en corrélation avec le mouvement exécuté. Les neurones du PMd codent la direction du mouvement choisi par les singes, assez rapidement après la présentation du stimulus. De plus, l’activation de plusieurs cellules du PMd est plus lente lorsque l'ambiguïté du stimulus augmente et prend plus de temps à signaler la direction de mouvement. L’activité des neurones du PMd reflète le choix de l’animal, peu importe si c’est une bonne réponse ou une erreur. Ceci supporte un rôle du PMd dans la prise de décision concernant les mouvements d’atteinte. Finalement, nous avons débuté des enregistrements dans le cortex préfrontal et les résultats présentés sont préliminaires. Les neurones du DLPFc semblent beaucoup plus influencés par les combinaisons des facteurs de couleur et de position spatiale que les neurones du PMd. Notre conclusion est que le cortex PMd est impliqué dans l'évaluation des évidences pour ou contre la position spatiale de différentes cibles potentielles mais assez indépendamment de la couleur de celles-ci. Le cortex DLPFc serait plutôt responsable du traitement des informations pour la combinaison de la couleur et de la position des cibles spatiales et du stimulus ambigu nécessaire pour faire le lien entre le stimulus ambigu et la cible correspondante.

Contributions des voies vestibulospinale et corticospinale au contrôle des mouvements du bras

Le contrôle des mouvements du bras fait intervenir plusieurs voies provenant du cerveau. Cette thèse, composée principalement de deux études, tente d’éclaircir les contributions des voies tirant leur origine du système vestibulaire et du cortex moteur. Dans la première étude (Raptis et al 2007), impliquant des mouvements d’atteinte, nous avons cerné l’importance des voies descendantes partant du système vestibulaire pour l’équivalence motrice, i.e. la capacité du système moteur à atteindre un but moteur donné lorsque le nombre de degrés de liberté articulaires varie. L’hypothèse émise était que le système vestibulaire joue un rôle essentiel dans l’équivalence motrice. Nous avons comparé la capacité d’équivalence motrice de sujets sains et de patients vestibulodéficients chroniques lors de mouvements nécessitant un contrôle des positions du bras et du tronc. Pendant que leur vision était temporairement bloquée, les sujets devaient soit maintenir une position de l’index pendant une flexion du tronc, soit atteindre une cible dans l’espace péri-personnel en combinant le mouvement du bras avec une flexion du tronc. Lors d’essais déterminés aléatoirement et imprévus par les participants, leur tronc était retenu par un mécanisme électromagnétique s’activant en même temps que le signal de départ. Les sujets sains ont pu préserver la position ou la trajectoire de l’index dans les deux conditions du tronc (libre, bloqué) en adaptant avec une courte latence (60-180 ms) les mouvements articulaires au niveau du coude et de l’épaule. En comparaison, six des sept patients vestibulodéficients chroniques ont présenté des déficits au plan des adaptations angulaires compensatoires. Pour ces patients, entre 30 % et 100 % du mouvement du tronc n’a pas été compensé et a été transmis à la position ou trajectoire de l’index. Ces résultats indiqueraient que les influences vestibulaires évoquées par le mouvement de la tête pendant la flexion du tronc jouent un rôle majeur pour garantir l’équivalence motrice dans ces tâches d’atteinte lorsque le nombre de degrés de liberté articulaires varie. Également, ils démontrent que la plasticité de long terme survenant spontanément après une lésion vestibulaire unilatérale complète ne serait pas suffisante pour permettre au SNC de retrouver un niveau d’équivalence motrice normal dans les actions combinant un déplacement du bras et du tronc. Ces tâches de coordination bras-tronc constituent ainsi une approche inédite et sensible pour l’évaluation clinique des déficits vestibulaires. Elles permettent de sonder une dimension fonctionnelle des influences vestibulaires qui n’était pas prise en compte dans les tests cliniques usuels, dont la sensibilité relativement limitée empêche souvent la détection d’insuffisances vestibulaires six mois après une lésion de ces voies. Avec cette première étude, nous avons donc exploré comment le cerveau et les voies descendantes intègrent des degrés de liberté articulaires supplémentaires dans le contrôle du bras. Dans la seconde étude (Raptis et al 2010), notre but était de clarifier la nature des variables spécifiées par les voies descendantes pour le contrôle d’actions motrices réalisées avec ce membre. Nous avons testé l’hypothèse selon laquelle les voies corticospinales contrôlent la position et les mouvements des bras en modulant la position-seuil (position de référence à partir de laquelle les muscles commencent à être activés en réponse à une déviation de cette référence). Selon ce principe, les voies corticospinales ne spécifieraient pas directement les patrons d’activité EMG, ce qui se refléterait par une dissociation entre l’EMG et l’excitabilité corticospinale pour des positions-seuils différentes. Dans un manipulandum, des participants (n=16) ont modifié leur angle du poignet, d’une position de flexion (45°) à une position d’extension (-25°), et vice-versa. Les forces élastiques passives des muscles ont été compensées avec un moteur couple afin que les sujets puissent égaliser leur activité EMG de base dans les deux positions. L’excitabilité motoneuronale dans ces positions a été comparée à travers l’analyse des réponses EMG évoquées à la suite d’étirements brefs. Dans les deux positions, le niveau d’EMG et l’excitabilité motoneuronale étaient semblables. De plus, ces tests ont permis de montrer que le repositionnement du poignet était associé à une translation de la position-seuil. Par contre, malgré la similitude de l’excitabilité motoneuronale dans ces positions, l’excitabilité corticospinale des muscles du poignet était significativement différente : les impulsions de stimulation magnétique transcrânienne (TMS; à 1.2 MT, sur l’aire du poignet de M1) ont provoqué des potentiels moteurs évoqués (MEP) de plus grande amplitude en flexion pour les fléchisseurs comparativement à la position d’extension et vice-versa pour les extenseurs (p<0.005 pour le groupe). Lorsque les mêmes positions étaient établies après une relaxation profonde, les réponses réflexes et les amplitudes des MEPs ont drastiquement diminué. La relation caractéristique observée entre position physique et amplitude des MEPs dans le positionnement actif s’est aussi estompée lorsque les muscles étaient relâchés. Cette étude suggère que la voie corticospinale, en association avec les autres voies descendantes, participerait au contrôle de la position-seuil, un processus qui prédéterminerait le référentiel spatial dans lequel l’activité EMG émerge. Ce contrôle de la « référence » constituerait un principe commun s’appliquant à la fois au contrôle de la force musculaire, de la position, du mouvement et de la relaxation. Nous avons aussi mis en évidence qu’il est nécessaire, dans les prochaines recherches ou applications utilisant la TMS, de prendre en compte la configuration-seuil des articulations, afin de bien interpréter les réponses musculaires (ou leurs changements) évoquées par cette technique; en effet, la configuration-seuil influencerait de manière notable l’excitabilité corticomotrice, qui peut être considérée comme un indicateur non seulement lors d’activités musculaires, mais aussi cognitives, après apprentissages moteurs ou lésions neurologiques causant des déficits moteurs (ex. spasticité, faiblesse). Considérées dans leur ensemble, ces deux études apportent un éclairage inédit sur des principes fondamentaux du contrôle moteur : nous y illustrons de manière plus large le rôle du système vestibulaire dans les tâches d’atteinte exigeant une coordination entre le bras et son « support » (le tronc) et clarifions l’implication des voies corticomotrices dans la spécification de paramètres élémentaires du contrôle moteur du bras. De plus amples recherches sont cependant nécessaires afin de mieux comprendre comment les systèmes sensoriels et descendants (e.g. vestibulo-, réticulo-, rubro-, propriospinal) participent et interagissent avec les signaux corticofugaux afin de spécifier les seuils neuromusculaires dans le contrôle de la posture et du mouvement.

Geometric Structure of the Adaptive Controller of the Human Arm

The objects with which the hand interacts with may significantly change the dynamics of the arm. How does the brain adapt control of arm movements to this new dynamic? We show that adaptation is via composition of a model of the task's dynamics. By exploring generalization capabilities of this adaptation we infer some of the properties of the computational elements with which the brain formed this model: the elements have broad receptive fields and encode the learned dynamics as a map structured in an intrinsic coordinate system closely related to the geometry of the skeletomusculature. The low--level nature of these elements suggests that they may represent asset of primitives with which a movement is represented in the CNS.

Reach & grasp therapy: Design and control of a 9-DOF robotic neuro-rehabilitation system

This paper presents the Gentle/G integrated system for reach & grasp therapy retraining following brain injury. The design, control and integration of an experimental grasp assistance unit is described for use in robot assisted stroke rehabilitation. The grasp assist unit is intended to work with the hardware and software of the Gentle/S robot although the hardware could be adapted to other rehabilitation applications. When used with the Gentle/S robot a total of 6 active and 3 passive degrees of freedom are available to provide active, active assist or passive grasp retraining in combination with reaching movements in a reach-grasp-transfer-release sequence.

Controllo dell'atto di prensione: coinvolgimento dell'area V6A nell'orientamento del polso

Prehension in an act of coordinated reaching and grasping. The reaching component is concerned with bringing the hand to object to be grasped (transport phase); the grasping component refers to the shaping of the hand according to the object features (grasping phase) (Jeannerod, 1981). Reaching and grasping involve different muscles, proximal and distal muscles respectively, and are controlled by different parietofrontal circuit (Jeannerod et al., 1995): a medial circuit, involving area of superior parietal lobule and dorsal premotor area 6 (PMd) (dorsomedial visual stream), is mainly concerned with reaching; a lateral circuit, involving the inferior parietal lobule and ventral premotor area 6 (PMv) (dorsolateral visual stream), with grasping. Area V6A is located in the caudalmost part of the superior parietal lobule, so it belongs to the dorsomedial visual stream; it contains neurons sensitive to visual stimuli (Galletti et al. 1993, 1996, 1999) as well as cells sensitive to the direction of gaze (Galletti et al. 1995) and cells showing saccade-related activity (Nakamura et al. 1999; Kutz et al. 2003). Area V6A contains also arm-reaching neurons likely involved in the control of the direction of the arm during movements towards objects in the peripersonal space (Galletti et al. 1997; Fattori et al. 2001). The present results confirm this finding and demonstrate that during the reach-to-grasp the V6A neurons are also modulated by the orientation of the wrist. Experiments were approved by the Bioethical Committee of the University of Bologna and were performed in accordance with National laws on care and use of laboratory animals and with the European Communities Council Directive of 24th November 1986 (86/609/EEC), recently revised by the Council of Europe guidelines (Appendix A of Convention ETS 123). Experiments were performed in two awake Macaca fascicularis. Each monkey was trained to sit in a primate chair with the head restrained to perform reaching and grasping arm movements in complete darkness while gazing a small fixation point. The object to be grasped was a handle that could have different orientation. We recorded neural activity from 163 neurons of the anterior parietal sulcus; 116/163 (71%) neurons were modulated by the reach-to-grasp task during the execution of the forward movements toward the target (epoch MOV), 111/163 (68%) during the pulling of the handle (epoch HOLD) and 102/163 during the execution of backward movements (epoch M2) (t_test, p ≤ 0.05). About the 45% of the tested cells turned out to be sensitive to the orientation of the handle (one way ANOVA, p ≤ 0.05). To study how the distal components of the movement, such as the hand preshaping during the reaching of the handle, could influence the neuronal discharge, we compared the neuronal activity during the reaching movements towards the same spatial location in reach-to-point and reach-to-grasp tasks. Both tasks required proximal arm movements; only the reach-to-grasp task required distal movements to orient the wrist and to shape the hand to grasp the handle. The 56% of V6A cells showed significant differences in the neural discharge (one way ANOVA, p ≤ 0.05) between the reach-to-point and the reach-to-grasp tasks during MOV, 54% during HOLD and 52% during M2. These data show that reaching and grasping are processed by the same population of neurons, providing evidence that the coordination of reaching and grasping takes place much earlier than previously thought, i.e., in the parieto-occipital cortex. The data here reported are in agreement with results of lesions to the medial posterior parietal cortex in both monkeys and humans, and with recent imaging data in humans, all of them indicating a functional coupling in the control of reaching and grasping by the medial parietofrontal circuit.

The role of medial parieto occipital cortex in visuospatial attention and reach planning: electrophysiological studies in human and non-human primates

We usually perform actions in a dynamic environment and changes in the location of a target for an upcoming action require both covert shifts of attention and motor planning update. In this study we tested whether, similarly to oculomotor areas that provide signals for overt and covert attention shifts, covert attention shifts modulate activity in cortical area V6A, which provides a bridge between visual signals and arm-motor control. We performed single cell recordings in monkeys trained to fixate straight-ahead while shifting attention outward to a peripheral cue and inward again to the fixation point. We found that neurons in V6A are influenced by spatial attention demonstrating that visual, motor, and attentional responses can occur in combination in single neurons of V6A. This modulation in an area primarily involved in visuo-motor transformation for reaching suggests that also reach-related regions could directly contribute in the shifts of spatial attention necessary to plan and control goal-directed arm movements. Moreover, to test whether V6A is causally involved in these processes, we have performed a human study using on-line repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation over the putative human V6A (pV6A) during an attention and a reaching task requiring covert shifts of attention and reaching movements towards cued targets in space. We demonstrate that the pV6A is causally involved in attention reorienting to target detection and that this process interferes with the execution of reaching movements towards unattended targets. The current findings suggest the direct involvement of the action-related dorso-medial visual stream in attentional processes, and a more specific role of V6A in attention reorienting. Therefore, we propose that attention signals are used by the V6A to rapidly update the current motor plan or the ongoing action when a behaviorally relevant object unexpectedly appears at an unattended location.

The posterior parietal cortex: a bridge between vision and action

The present work takes into account three posterior parietal areas, V6, V6A, and PEc, all operating on different subsets of signals (visual, somatic, motor). The work focuses on the study of their functional properties, to better understand their respective contribution in the neuronal circuits that make possible the interactions between subject and external environment. In the caudalmost pole of parietal lobe there is area V6. Functional data suggest that this area is related to the encoding of both objects motion and ego-motion. However, the sensitivity of V6 neurons to optic flow stimulations has been tested only in human fMRI experiments. Here we addressed this issue by applying on monkey the same experimental protocol used in human studies. The visual stimulation obtained with the Flow Fields stimulus was the most effective and powerful to activate area V6 in monkey, further strengthening this homology between the two primates. The neighboring areas, V6A and PEc, show different cytoarchitecture and connectivity profiles, but are both involved in the control of reaches. We studied the sensory responses present in these areas, and directly compared these.. We also studied the motor related discharges of PEc neurons during reaching movements in 3D space comparing also the direction and depth tuning of PEc cells with those of V6A. The results show that area PEc and V6A share several functional properties. Area PEc, unlike V6A, contains a richer and more complex somatosensory input, and a poorer, although complex visual one. Differences emerged also comparing the motor-related properties for reaches in depth: the incidence of depth modulations in PEc and the temporal pattern of modulation for depth and direction allow to delineate a trend among the two parietal visuomotor areas.

Robotic Outcome Assessment in a Non-Human Primate Model of Middle Cerebral Artery Stroke

Stroke is a prevalent disorder with immense socioeconomic impact. A variety of chronic neurological deficits result from stroke. In particular, sensorimotor deficits are a significant barrier to achieving post-stroke independence. Unfortunately, the majority of pre-clinical studies that show improved outcomes in animal stroke models have failed in clinical trials. Pre-clinical studies using non-human primate (NHP) stroke models prior to initiating human trials are a potential step to improving translation from animal studies to clinical trials. Robotic assessment tools represent a quantitative, reliable, and reproducible means to assess reaching behaviour following stroke in both humans and NHPs. We investigated the use of robotic technology to assess sensorimotor impairments in NHPs following middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). Two cynomolgus macaques underwent transient MCAO for 90 minutes. Approximately 1.5 years following the procedure these NHPs and two non-stroke control monkeys were trained in a reaching task with both arms in the KINARM exoskeleton. This robot permits elbow and shoulder movements in the horizontal plane. The task required NHPs to make reaching movements from a centrally positioned start target to 1 of 8 peripheral targets uniformly distributed around the first target. We analyzed four movement parameters: reaction time, movement time (MT), initial direction error (IDE), and number of speed maxima to characterize sensorimotor deficiencies. We hypothesized reduced performance in these attributes during a neurobehavioural task with the paretic limb of NHPs following MCAO compared to controls. Reaching movements in the non-affected limbs of control and experimental NHPs showed bell-shaped velocity profiles. In contrast, the reaching movements with the affected limbs were highly variable. We found distinctive patterns in MT, IDE, and number of speed peaks between control and experimental monkeys and between limbs of NHPs with MCAO. NHPs with MCAO demonstrated more speed peaks, longer MTs, and greater IDE in their paretic limb compared to controls. These initial results qualitatively match human stroke subjects’ performance, suggesting that robotic neurobehavioural assessment in NHPs with stroke is feasible and could have translational relevance in subsequent human studies. Further studies will be necessary to replicate and expand on these preliminary findings.

Avoidance of obstacles in the absence of visual awareness

The spatial character of our reaching movements is extremely sensitive to potential obstacles in the workspace. We recently found that this sensitivity was retained by most patients with left visual neglect when reaching between two objects, despite the fact that they tended to ignore the leftward object when asked to bisect the space between them. This raises the possibility that obstacle avoidance does not require a conscious awareness of the obstacle avoided. We have now tested this hypothesis in a patient with visual extinction following right temporoparietal damage. Extinction is an attentional disorder in which patients fail to report stimuli on the side of space opposite a brain lesion under conditions of bilateral stimulation. Our patient avoided obstacles during reaching, to exactly the same degree, regardless of whether he was able to report their presence. This implicit processing of object location, which may depend on spared superior parietal-lobe pathways, demonstrates that conscious awareness is not necessary for normal obstacle avoidance.

Novel strategies in feedforward adaptation to a position-dependent perturbation

To investigate the control mechanisms used in adapting to position-dependent forces, subjects performed 150 horizontal reaching movements over 25 cm in the presence of a position-dependent parabolic force field (PF). The PF acted only over the first 10 cm of the movement. On every fifth trial, a virtual mechanical guide (double wall) constrained subjects to move along a straight-line path between the start and target positions. Its purpose was to register lateral force to track formation of an internal model of the force field, and to look for evidence of possible alternative adaptive strategies. The force field produced a force to the right, which initially caused subjects to deviate in that direction. They reacted by producing deviations to the left, into the force field, as early as the second trial. Further adaptation resulted in rapid exponential reduction of kinematic error in the latter portion of the movement, where the greatest perturbation to the handpath was initially observed, whereas there was little modification of the handpath in the region where the PF was active. Significant force directed to counteract the PF was measured on the first guided trial, and was modified during the first half of the learning set. The total force impulse in the region of the PF increased throughout the learning trials, but it always remained less than that produced by the PF. The force profile did not resemble a mirror image of the PF in that it tended to be more trapezoidal than parabolic in shape. As in previous studies of force-field adaptation, we found that changes in muscle activation involved a general increase in the activity of all muscles, which increased arm stiffness, and selectively-greater increases in the activation of muscles which counteracted the PF. With training, activation was exponentially reduced, albeit more slowly than kinematic error. Progressive changes in kinematics and EMG occurred predominantly in the region of the workspace beyond the force field. We suggest that constraints on muscle mechanics limit the ability of the central nervous system to employ an inverse dynamics model to nullify impulse-like forces by generating mirror-image forces. Consequently, subjects adopted a strategy of slightly overcompensating for the first half of the force field, then allowing the force field to push them in the opposite direction. Muscle activity patterns in the region beyond the boundary of the force field were subsequently adjusted because of the relatively-slow response of the second-order mechanics of muscle impedance to the force impulse.

Position information but not force information is used in adapting to changes in environmental dynamics

This study investigated how movement error is evaluated and used to change feedforward commands following a change in the environmental dynamics. In particular, we addressed the question of whether only position-error information is used or whether information about the force-field direction can also be used for rapid adaptation to changes in the environmental dynamics. Subjects learned to move in a position-dependent force field (PF) with a parabolic profile and the dynamics of a negative spring, which produced lateral force to the left of the target hand path. They adapted very rapidly, dramatically reducing lateral error after a single trial. Several times during training, the strength of the PF was unexpectedly doubled (PF2) for two trials. This again created a large leftward deviation, which was greatly reduced on the second PF2 trial, and an aftereffect when the force field subsequently returned to its original strength. The aftereffect was abolished if the second PF2 trial was replaced by an oppositely directed velocity-dependent force field (VF). During subsequent training in the VF, immediately after having adapted to the PF, subjects applied a force that assisted the force field for similar to 15 trials, indicating that they did not use information about the force-field direction. We concluded that the CNS uses only the position error for updating the internal model of the environmental dynamics and modifying feedforward commands. Although this strategy is not necessarily optimal, it may be the most reliable strategy for iterative improvement in performance.

Robotic Outcome Assessment in a Non-Human Primate Model of Middle Cerebral Artery Stroke

Stroke is a prevalent disorder with immense socioeconomic impact. A variety of chronic neurological deficits result from stroke. In particular, sensorimotor deficits are a significant barrier to achieving post-stroke independence. Unfortunately, the majority of pre-clinical studies that show improved outcomes in animal stroke models have failed in clinical trials. Pre-clinical studies using non-human primate (NHP) stroke models prior to initiating human trials are a potential step to improving translation from animal studies to clinical trials. Robotic assessment tools represent a quantitative, reliable, and reproducible means to assess reaching behaviour following stroke in both humans and NHPs. We investigated the use of robotic technology to assess sensorimotor impairments in NHPs following middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). Two cynomolgus macaques underwent transient MCAO for 90 minutes. Approximately 1.5 years following the procedure these NHPs and two non-stroke control monkeys were trained in a reaching task with both arms in the KINARM exoskeleton. This robot permits elbow and shoulder movements in the horizontal plane. The task required NHPs to make reaching movements from a centrally positioned start target to 1 of 8 peripheral targets uniformly distributed around the first target. We analyzed four movement parameters: reaction time, movement time (MT), initial direction error (IDE), and number of speed maxima to characterize sensorimotor deficiencies. We hypothesized reduced performance in these attributes during a neurobehavioural task with the paretic limb of NHPs following MCAO compared to controls. Reaching movements in the non-affected limbs of control and experimental NHPs showed bell-shaped velocity profiles. In contrast, the reaching movements with the affected limbs were highly variable. We found distinctive patterns in MT, IDE, and number of speed peaks between control and experimental monkeys and between limbs of NHPs with MCAO. NHPs with MCAO demonstrated more speed peaks, longer MTs, and greater IDE in their paretic limb compared to controls. These initial results qualitatively match human stroke subjects’ performance, suggesting that robotic neurobehavioural assessment in NHPs with stroke is feasible and could have translational relevance in subsequent human studies. Further studies will be necessary to replicate and expand on these preliminary findings.

Differential contributions of the mIPS and PMd in the movement planning of reaches investigated through HD-tDCS

To reach for a target, we must formulate a movement plan - a difference vector of the target position with respect to the starting hand position. While it is known that the medial part of the intraparietal sulcus (mIPS) and the dorsal premotor (PMd) activity reflects aspects of a kinematic plan for a reaching movement, it is unclear whether or how the two regions may differ. We investigated the functional roles of the mIPS and PMd in the planning of reaching movements using high definition transcranial direct current stimulation (HD-tDCS) and examined changes in horizontal endpoint error when participants were subjected to anodal and cathodal stimulation. The left mIPS and PMd were functionally localized with fMRI in each participant using an interleaved center-out pointing and saccade task and mapped onto the scalp using Brainsight. We adopted a randomized, single-blind design and applied anodal and cathodal stimulation (2mA for 20 min; 3cm radius 4x1 electrode placement) during 4 separate visits scheduled at least a week apart. Each participant performed 250 baseline, stimulation, and post-stimulation memory-guided reaches starting from one of two initial hand positions (IHPs) to one of 4 briefly flashed targets (20 cm distant, 5 cm apart horizontally) while fixating on a straight-ahead cross located at the target line. Separate 2-way repeated measures ANOVAs of horizontal endpoint error difference after cathodal tDCS at each stimulation site revealed a significant IHP by target position interaction effect at the left mIPS, and significant IHP and target main effects at the left PMd. Behaviorally, these effects corresponded to IHP-dependent contractions after cathodal mIPS tDCS and IHP-independent contractions after cathodal PMd tDCS. These results suggest that the movement vector is not yet formed at the input level of mIPS, but is encoded at the input of PMd. These results also indicate that tDCS is a viable, useful method in investigating movement planning properties through temporary perturbations of the system.

To eat or not to eat? Kinematics and muscle activity of reach-to-grasp movements are influenced by the action goal, but observers do not detect these differences

Recent evidence suggests that the mirror neuron system responds to the goals of actions, even when the end of the movement is hidden from view. To investigate whether this predictive ability might be based on the detection of early differences between actions with different outcomes, we used electromyography (EMG) and motion tracking to assess whether two actions with different goals (grasp to eat and grasp to place) differed from each other in their initial reaching phases. In a second experiment, we then tested whether observers could detect early differences and predict the outcome of these movements, based on seeing only part of the actions. Experiment 1 revealed early kinematic differences between the two movements, with grasp-to-eat movements characterised by an earlier peak acceleration, and different grasp position, compared to grasp-to-place movements. There were also significant differences in forearm muscle activity in the reaching phase of the two actions. The behavioural data arising from Experiments 2a and 2b indicated that observers are not able to predict whether an object is going to be brought to the mouth or placed until after the grasp has been completed. This suggests that the early kinematic differences are either not visible to observers, or that they are not used to predict the end-goals of actions. These data are discussed in the context of the mirror neuron system

Do people with recurrent back pain constrain spinal motion during seated horizontal and downward reaching?

Background: Although the effect of symptomatic back pain on functional movement has been investigated, changes to spinal movement patterns in essentially pain-free people with a history of recurrent back pain are largely unreported. Reaching activities, important for everyday and occupational function, often present problems to such people, but have not been considered in this population. The purpose of this study was to compare the amplitude and timing of spinal and hip motions during two, seated reaching activities in people with and without a history of recurrent low back pain (RLBP).Methods: Spinal and hip motions during reaching downward and across the body, in both directions, were tracked using electromagnetic sensors. Analyses were conducted to explore the amplitudes, velocities and timings of 3D segmental movements and to compare controls with subjects with recurrent, but asymptomatic lumbar or lumbosacral pain.Findings: We detected significant differences in the amplitude and timing of movement in the lower thoracic region, with the RLBP group restricting movement and demonstrating compensatory increased motion at the hip. The lumbar region displayed no significant between-group differences. The order in which the spinal segments achieved peak velocity in cross-reaching was reversed in RLBP compared to controls, with lumbar motion leading in controls and lagging in RLBP.Interpretation: Subjects with a history of RLBP show a number of altered kinematic features during reaching activities which are not related to the presence or intensity of pain, but which suggest adaptive changes to movement control. (C) 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.