the liver endoplasmic reticulum in malaria liver infection

Malaria, a disease caused by Plasmodium, represents a major health problem with a still disconcertingly high mortality rate (655 000 malaria deaths were estimated by the World Health Organization in 2012), mainly in Africa [1]. After a bite by an infected Anopheles mosquito occurs, Plasmodium sporozoites reach their target organ, the liver, within minutes. After traversing several hepatocytes, the parasite invades a final one and establishes a parasitophorous vacuole, where it replicates exponentially generating thousands of infective merozoites, the red blood cell infectious forms that are released in the blood stream. The liver stage is the first obligatory phase of malaria infection and, although no symptoms are associated with it, it is absolutely crucial to the establishment of a successful infection.(...)

Mecanismo de interacción, calcio dependiente, entre Calcineurina y PERK, involucrado en el Estrés de Retículo Endoplásmico. Ca2+ -dependent mechanism of interaction between Calcineurin and PERK involved in Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress.

El Estrés de Retículo Endoplásmico (RE) es inducido por la acumulación de proteínas sin plegar en el lumen de la organela. Esto se puede observar en diversas situaciones fisio-patológicas como durante una infección viral o en proceso isquémico. Además, contribuye a la base molecular de numerosas enfermedades ya sea índole metabólico (Fibrosis quística o Diabetes Miellitus) o neurodegenerativas como mal de Alzheimer o Parkinson (Mutat Res, 2005, 569). Para restablecer la homeostasis en la organela se activa una señal de transducción (UPR), cuya respuesta inmediata es la atenuación de la síntesis de proteína debido a la fosforilación de subunidad alpha del factor eucariótico de iniciación de translación (eIF2α) vía PERK. Esta es una proteína de membrana de RE que detecta estrés. Bajo condiciones normales, PERK está inactiva debido a la asociación de su dominio luminar con la chaperona BIP (Nat Cell Biol, 2000, 2: 326). Frente a una situación de estrés, la chaperona se disocia causando desinhibición. Recientemente, (Plos One 5: e11925) se observó, bajo condiciones de estrés, un aumento de Ca2+ citosólico y un rápido incremento de la expresión de calcineurina (CN), una fosfatasa citosólica dependiente de calcio, heterodimérica formada por una subunidad catalítica (CN-A) y una regulatoria (CN-B). Además, CN interacciona, sin intermediarios, con el dominio citosólico de PERK favoreciendo su trans-autofosforilación. Resultados preliminares indican que, astrocitos CNAβ-/- exhibieron, en condiciones basales, un mayor número de células muertas y de niveles de eIF2α fosforilado que los astrocitos CNAα-/-. Hipótesis: CNAβ/B interacciona con PERK cuando el Ca2+ citosólico esta incrementado luego de haberse inducido Estrés de RE, lo cual promueve dimerización y auto-fosforilación de la quinasa, acentuándose así la fosforilación de eIF2α e inhibición de la síntesis de proteínas. Esta activación citosólica de PERK colaboraría con la ya descrita, desinhibición luminal llevada cabo por BIP. Cuando el Ca2+ citosólico retorna a los niveles basales, PERK fosforila a CN, reduciendo su afinidad de unión y disociándose el complejo CN/PERK. Objetivo general: Definir las condiciones por las cuales CN interacciona con PERK y regula la fosforilación de eIF2α e inhibición de la síntesis de proteína. Objetivos específicos: I-Estudiar la diferencia de afinidades y dependencia de Ca2+, de las dos isoformas de CN (α y β) en su asociación con PERK. Además verificar la posible participación de la subunidad B de CN en esta interacción. II-Determinar si la auto-fosforilación de PERK es diferencialmente regulada por las dos isoformas de CN. III-Discernir la relación del estado de fosforilación de CN con su unión a PERK. IV-Determinar efectos fisiológicos de la interacción de CN-PERK durante la respuesta de Estrés de RE. Para llevar a cabo este proyecto se realizarán experimentos de biología molecular, interacción proteína-proteína, ensayos de fosforilación in vitro y un perfil de polisoma con astrocitos CNAβ-/- , CNA-/- y astrocitos controles. Se espera encontrar una mayor afinidad de unión a PERK de la isoforma β de CN y en condiciones donde la concentración de Ca2+ sea del orden micromolar e imite niveles del ión durante un estrés. Con respecto al estado de fosforilación de CN, debido a los resultados preliminares, donde solo se la encontró fosforilada en condiciones basales, se piensa que CN podría interactuar con mayor afinidad con PERK cuando CN se encuentre desfosforilada. Por último, se espera encontrar un aumento de eIF2α fosforilado y una acentuación de la atenuación de la síntesis de proteína como consecuencia de la mayor activación de PERK por su asociación con la isoforma β de CN en astrocitos donde el Estrés de RE se indujo por privación de oxigeno y glucosa. Estos experimentos permitirán avanzar en el estudio de una nueva función citoprotectora de CN recientemente descrita por nuestro grupo de trabajo y sus implicancias en un modelo de isquemia. The accumulation of unfolded proteins into the Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) activates a signal transduction cascade called Unfolding Protein Response (UPR), which attempts to restore homeostasis in the organelle. (PKR)-like-ER kinase (PERK) is an early stress response transmembrane protein that is generally inactive due to its association with the chaperone BIP. During ER stress, BIP is tritrated by the unfolded protein, leading PERK activation and phosphorylation of eukaryotic initiation factor-2 alpha (eIF2alpha), which attenuates protein síntesis. If ER damage is too great and homeostasis is not restored within a certain period of time, an apoptotic response is elicited. We recently demonstrated a cytosolic Ca2+ increase in Xenopus oocytes after induce ER stress. Moreover, calcineurin A/B, a an heterotrimeric Ca2+ dependent phosphatases (CN-A/B), associates with PERK increasing its auto-phosphorylation and significantly enhancing cell viability. Preliminary results suggest that, CN-Aβ-/- knockout astrocytes exhibit a significant higher eIF2α phosphorylated level compared to CN-Aα-/- astrocytes. Our working hypothesis establishes that: CN binds to PERK when cytosolic Ca2+ is initially increased by ER stress, promoting dimerization and autophosphorylation, which leads to phosphorylation of elF2α and subsequently attenuation of protein translation. When cytosolic Ca2+ returns to resting levels, PERK phosphorylates CN, reducing its binding affinity so that the CN/PERK complex dissociates. The goal of this project is to determine the conditions by which CN binding to PERK attenuates protein translation during the ER stress response and subsequently, to determine how the interaction of CN with PERK is terminated when stress is removed. To perform this project is planed to do molecular biology experiments, pull down assays, in vitro phosphorylations and assess overall mRNA translation efficiency doing a polisome profile.

Normal kinetics of intestinal glucose absorption in the absence of GLUT2: evidence for a transport pathway requiring glucose phosphorylation and transfer into the endoplasmic reticulum.

Glucose is absorbed through the intestine by a transepithelial transport system initiated at the apical membrane by the cotransporter SGLT-1; intracellular glucose is then assumed to diffuse across the basolateral membrane through GLUT2. Here, we evaluated the impact of GLUT2 gene inactivation on this transepithelial transport process. We report that the kinetics of transepithelial glucose transport, as assessed in oral glucose tolerance tests, was identical in the presence or absence of GLUT2; that the transport was transcellular because it could be inhibited by the SGLT-1 inhibitor phlorizin, and that it could not be explained by overexpression of another known glucose transporter. By using an isolated intestine perfusion system, we demonstrated that the rate of transepithelial transport was similar in control and GLUT2(-/-) intestine and that it was increased to the same extent by cAMP in both situations. However, in the absence, but not in the presence, of GLUT2, the transport was inhibited dose-dependently by the glucose-6-phosphate translocase inhibitor S4048. Furthermore, whereas transport of [(14)C]glucose proceeded with the same kinetics in control and GLUT2(-/-) intestine, [(14)C]3-O-methylglucose was transported in intestine of control but not of mutant mice. Together our data demonstrate the existence of a transepithelial glucose transport system in GLUT2(-/-) intestine that requires glucose phosphorylation and transfer of glucose-6-phosphate into the endoplasmic reticulum. Glucose may then be released out of the cells by a membrane traffic-based pathway similar to the one we previously described in GLUT2-null hepatocytes.

PPARβ/δ prevents endoplasmic reticulum stress-associated inflammation and insulin resistance in skeletal muscle cells through an AMPK-dependent mechanism.

AIM/HYPOTHESIS: Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, which is involved in the link between inflammation and insulin resistance, contributes to the development of type 2 diabetes mellitus. In this study, we assessed whether peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)β/δ prevented ER stress-associated inflammation and insulin resistance in skeletal muscle cells. METHODS: Studies were conducted in mouse C2C12 myotubes, in the human myogenic cell line LHCN-M2 and in skeletal muscle from wild-type and PPARβ/δ-deficient mice and mice exposed to a high-fat diet. RESULTS: The PPARβ/δ agonist GW501516 prevented lipid-induced ER stress in mouse and human myotubes and in skeletal muscle of mice fed a high-fat diet. PPARβ/δ activation also prevented thapsigargin- and tunicamycin-induced ER stress in human and murine skeletal muscle cells. In agreement with this, PPARβ/δ activation prevented ER stress-associated inflammation and insulin resistance, and glucose-intolerant PPARβ/δ-deficient mice showed increased phosphorylated levels of inositol-requiring 1 transmembrane kinase/endonuclease-1α in skeletal muscle. Our findings demonstrate that PPARβ/δ activation prevents ER stress through the activation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), and the subsequent inhibition of extracellular-signal-regulated kinase (ERK)1/2 due to the inhibitory crosstalk between AMPK and ERK1/2, since overexpression of a dominant negative AMPK construct (K45R) reversed the effects attained by PPARβ/δ activation. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: Overall, these findings indicate that PPARβ/δ prevents ER stress, inflammation and insulin resistance in skeletal muscle cells by activating AMPK.

Purification and biochemica characterisation of endoplasmic reticulum α 1,2-mannosidase from Sporothrix schenckiil

Alpha 1,2-mannosidases from glycosyl hydrolase family 47 participate in N-glycan biosynthesis. In filamentous fungi and mammalian cells, α1,2-mannosidases are present in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and Golgi complex and are required to generate complex N-glycans. However, lower eukaryotes such Saccharomyces cerevisiae contain only one α1,2-mannosidase in the lumen of the ER and synthesise high-mannose N-glycans. Little is known about the N-glycan structure and the enzyme machinery involved in the synthesis of these oligosaccharides in the dimorphic fungus Sporothrix schenckii. Here, a membrane-bound α-mannosidase from S. schenckii was solubilised using a high-temperature procedure and purified by conventional methods of protein isolation. Analytical zymograms revealed a polypeptide of 75 kDa to be responsible for enzyme activity and this purified protein was recognised by anti-α1,2-mannosidase antibodies. The enzyme hydrolysed Man9GlcNAc2 into Man8GlcNAc2 isomer B and was inhibited preferentially by 1-deoxymannojirimycin. This α1,2-mannosidase was localised in the ER, with the catalytic domain within the lumen of this compartment. These properties are consistent with an ER-localised α1,2-mannosidase of glycosyl hydrolase family 47. Our results also suggested that in contrast to other filamentous fungi, S. schenckii lacks Golgi α1,2-mannosidases and therefore, the processing of N-glycans by α1,2-mannosidases is similar to that present in lower eukaryotes.

Retention of a recombinant GFP protein expressed by the yellow fever 17D virus in the E/NS1 intergenic region in the endoplasmic reticulum

The flaviviral envelope proteins, E protein and precursor membrane protein, are mainly associated with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) through two transmembrane (TM) domains that are exposed to the luminal face of this compartment. Their retention is associated with the viral assembly process. ER-retrieval motifs were mapped at the carboxy terminus of these envelope proteins. A recombinant yellow fever (YF) 17D virus expressing the reporter green fluorescent protein (GFP) with the stem-anchor (SA) region of E protein fused to its carboxy terminus was subjected to distinct genetic mutations in the SA sequence to investigate their effect on ER retention. Initially, we introduced progressive deletions of the stem elements (H1, CS and H2). In a second set of mutants, the effect of a length increase for the first TM anchor region was evaluated either by replacing it with the longer TM of human LAMP-1 or by the insertion of the VALLLVA sequence into its carboxy terminus. We did not detect any effect on the GFP localisation in the cell, which remained associated with the ER. Further studies should be undertaken to elucidate the causes of the ER retention of recombinant proteins expressed at the intergenic E/NS1 region of the YF 17D virus polyprotein.

Structure-based drug design studies of the interactions ofent-kaurane diterpenes derived from Wedelia paludosa with the Plasmodium falciparumsarco/endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase PfATP6

Malaria is responsible for more deaths around the world than any other parasitic disease. Due to the emergence of strains that are resistant to the current chemotherapeutic antimalarial arsenal, the search for new antimalarial drugs remains urgent though hampered by a lack of knowledge regarding the molecular mechanisms of artemisinin resistance. Semisynthetic compounds derived from diterpenes from the medicinal plant Wedelia paludosawere tested in silico against the Plasmodium falciparumCa2+-ATPase, PfATP6. This protein was constructed by comparative modelling using the three-dimensional structure of a homologous protein, 1IWO, as a scaffold. Compound 21 showed the best docking scores, indicating a better interaction with PfATP6 than that of thapsigargin, the natural inhibitor. Inhibition of PfATP6 by diterpene compounds could promote a change in calcium homeostasis, leading to parasite death. These data suggest PfATP6 as a potential target for the antimalarial ent-kaurane diterpenes.

The endoplasmic reticulum: a sensor of cellular stress that modulates immune responses.

Many inflammatory and infectious diseases are characterized by the activation of signaling pathways steaming from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). These pathways, primarily associated with loss of ER homeostasis, are emerging as key regulators of inflammation and infection. Recent advances shed light on the mechanisms linking ER-stress and immune responses.

Mécanisme moléculaire de protection des HDLs contre le stress du réticulum endoplasmique dans la cellule beta pancréatique. [Molecular mechanisms of HDLs to protect against the endoplasmic reticulum stress in pancreatic beta cell.]

Introduction: Les particules de HDL (High Density Lipoproteins) ont des fonctions très diverses notamment anti-inflamatoires, anti-apoptotiques ou anti-oxydatives. Chez les patients diabétiques, les niveaux de HDLs sont bas, les prédisposants ainsi à un risque élévé à développer une maladie cardiovasculaire. Sachant que le s HDLs ont également un effet protecteur sur la cellule beta, le but de cette étude est dinvestigué les mécanismes moléculaires de cette protection contre le stress du réticulum, stress qui contriubue au développement du diabéte de type 2. Résultats: La thapsigargine et la tunicamycine induisent lapoptose en induisant un stress dans le réticulum endoplasmique (RE) par un mauvais repliement des protéines dans le RE, ainsi que l'activation de l'UPR (Unfolded Protein Respons) avec trois voies communes de signalisation intracellulaire (IRE1, PREK et ATF6). Ces voix veillent tout d'abord à augmenter la capacité de repliement des protéines et le cas échéant à lapoptose. Nos résultats montrent que les HDLs sont capable d'inhuber lapoptose induite par la thapsigargine et la tunicamycine dans les MIN6. Dans le cas du traitement avec la thapsigargine, plusieurs marqueurs des voix UPR sont bloqués en présence des HDLs, suggérant que l'effet anti-apoptotiques des HDLs s'exerce au niveau ou en amont du RE. Les HDLS par contre ne bloquent par la sortie de calcium du RE induite par la thapsigargine ce qui indique que les HDLs n'interfèrent pas avec l'action de cette drogue sur sa cible (SERCA). Dans le cas de la la tunicamycine, les HDLs ne bloquent pas, ou très légèrement, l'activation des voix de l'UPR. La protection induite par les HDLs contre la mort engendrée par la tunicamycine s'sexerce dont apparement en aval de l'UPR et reste à être déterminer. Conclusions: Nos données suggérent que les HDLs sont capable de protéger la cellule beta contre le stress du réticulum mais apparement de façon différente selon les modalités d'inductions de ce stress.

Targeting endoplasmic reticulum signaling pathways in cancer.

Abstract The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) orchestrates the production of membrane-bound and secreted proteins. However, its capacity to process the synthesis and folding of protein is limited. Protein overload and the accumulation of misfolded proteins in the ER trigger an adaptive response known as the ER-stress response that is mediated by specific ER-anchored signaling pathways. This response regulates cell functions aimed at restoring cellular homeostasis or at promoting apoptosis of irreparably damaged cells. Activation or deregulation of ER-signaling pathways has been associated with various diseases including cancer. Here we discuss how tumors engage ER-signaling pathways to promote tumorigenesis and how manipulation of this process by anticancer drugs may contribute to cancer treatment.

Gp74 a membrane glycoprotein of the cis-Golgi network that cycles through the endoplasmic reticulum and intermediate compartment

A monoclonal antibody CC92 (IgM), raised against a fraction of rat liver enriched in Golgi membranes, recognizes a novel Endo H-resistant 74-kD membrane glycoprotein (gp74). The bulk of gp74 is confined to the cis-Golgi network (CGN). Outside the Golgi gp74 is found in tubulovesicular structures and ER foci. In cells incubated at 37 degrees C the majority of gp74 is segregated from the intermediate compartment (IC) marker p58. However, in cells treated with organelle perturbants such as low temperature, BFA, and [AIF4]- the patterns of the two proteins become indistinguishable. Both proteins are retained in the Golgi complex at 20 degrees C and in the IC at 15 degrees C. Incubation of cells with BFA results in relocation of gp74 to p58 positive IC elements. [AIF4]- induces the redistribution of gp74 from the Golgi to p58-positive vesicles and does not retard the translocation of gp74 to IC elements in cells treated with BFA. Disruption of microtubules by nocodazol results in the rapid disappearance of the Golgi elements stained by gp74 and redistribution of the protein into vesicle-like structures. The responses of gp74 to cell perturbants are in sharp contrast with those of cis/middle and trans-Golgi resident proteins whose location is not affected by low temperatures or [AIF4]-, are translocated to the ER upon addition of BFA, and stay in slow disintegrating Golgi elements in cells treated with nocodazol. The results suggest that gp74 is an itinerant protein that resides most of the time in the CGN and cycles through the ER/IC following the pathway used by p58.

Regulation of protein transport from the Golgi complex to the endoplasmic reticulum by CDC42 and N-WASP.

Actin is involved in the organization of the Golgi complex and Golgi-to-ER protein transport in mammalian cells. Little, however, is known about the regulation of the Golgi-associated actin cytoskeleton. We provide evidence that Cdc42, a small GTPase that regulates actin dynamics, controls Golgi-to-ER protein transport. We located GFP-Cdc42 in the lateral portions of Golgi cisternae and in COPI-coated and noncoated Golgi-associated transport intermediates. Overexpression of Cdc42 and its activated form Cdc42V12 inhibited the retrograde transport of Shiga toxin from the Golgi complex to the ER, the redistribution of the KDEL receptor, and the ER accumulation of Golgi-resident proteins induced by the active GTP-bound mutant of Sar1 (Sar1[H79G]). Coexpression of wild-type or activated Cdc42 and N-WASP also inhibited Golgito-ER transport, but this was not the case in cells expressing Cdc42V12 and N-WASP(AWA), a mutant form of N-WASP that lacks Arp2/3 binding. Furthermore, Cdc42V12 recruited GFP-NWASP to the Golgi complex. We therefore conclude that Cdc42 regulates Golgi-to-ER protein transport in an N-WASP¿dependent manner.

Myosin motors and not actin comets are mediators of the actin-based Golgi-to-endoplasmic reticulum protein transport

We have previously reported that actin filaments are involved in protein transport from the Golgi complex to the endoplasmic reticulum. Herein, we examined whether myosin motors or actin comets mediate this transport. To address this issue we have used, on one hand, a combination of specific inhibitors such as 2,3-butanedione monoxime (BDM) and 1-[5-isoquinoline sulfonyl]-2-methyl piperazine (ML7), which inhibit myosin and the phosphorylation of myosin II by the myosin light chain kinase, respectively; and a mutant of the nonmuscle myosin II regulatory light chain, which cannot be phosphorylated (MRLC2AA). On the other hand, actin comet tails were induced by the overexpression of phosphatidylinositol phosphate 5-kinase. Cells treated with BDM/ML7 or those that express the MRLC2AA mutant revealed a significant reduction in the brefeldin A (BFA)-induced fusion of Golgi enzymes with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). This delay was not caused by an alteration in the formation of the BFA-induced tubules from the Golgi complex. In addition, the Shiga toxin fragment B transport from the Golgi complex to the ER was also altered. This impairment in the retrograde protein transport was not due to depletion of intracellular calcium stores or to the activation of Rho kinase. Neither the reassembly of the Golgi complex after BFA removal nor VSV-G transport from ER to the Golgi was altered in cells treated with BDM/ML7 or expressing MRLC2AA. Finally, transport carriers containing Shiga toxin did not move into the cytosol at the tips of comet tails of polymerizing actin. Collectively, the results indicate that 1) myosin motors move to transport carriers from the Golgi complex to the ER along actin filaments; 2) nonmuscle myosin II mediates in this process; and 3) actin comets are not involved in retrograde transport.

Vacuole membrane protein 1 is an endoplasmic reticulum protein required for organelle biogenesis, protein secretion, and development

Vacuole membrane protein 1 (Vmp1) is membrane protein of unknown molecular function that has been associated with pancreatitis and cancer. The social amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum has a vmp1-related gene that we identified previously in a functional genomic study. Loss-of-function of this gene leads to a severe phenotype that compromises Dictyostelium growth and development. The expression of mammalian Vmp1 in a vmp1 Dictyostelium mutant complemented the phenotype, suggesting a functional conservation of the protein among evolutionarily distant species and highlights Dictyostelium as a valid experimental system to address the function of this gene. Dictyostelium Vmp1 is an endoplasmic reticulum protein necessary for the integrity of this organelle. Cells deficient in Vmp1 display pleiotropic defects in the secretory pathway and organelle biogenesis. The contractile vacuole, which is necessary to survive under hypoosmotic conditions, is not functional in the mutant. The structure of the Golgi apparatus, the function of the endocytic pathway and conventional protein secretion are also affected in these cells. Transmission electron microscopy of vmp1 cells showed the accumulation of autophagic features that suggests a role of Vmp1 in macroautophagy. In addition to these defects observed at the vegetative stage, the onset of multicellular development and early developmental gene expression are also compromised.