Determinants of farmer retirement and farm succession in Finland

In the past decade, the Finnish agricultural sector has undergone rapid structural changes. The number of farms has decreased and the average farm size has increased when the number of farms transferred to new entrants has decreased. Part of the structural change in agriculture is manifested in early retirement programmes. In studying farmers exit behaviour in different countries, institutional differences, incentive programmes and constraints are found to matter. In Finland, farmers early retirement programmes were first introduced in 1974 and, during the last ten years, they have been carried out within the European Union framework for these programmes. The early retirement benefits are farmer specific and de-pend on the level of pension insurance the farmer has paid over his active farming years. In order to predict the future development of the agricultural sector, farmers have been frequently asked about their future plans and their plans for succession. However, the plans the farmers made for succession have been found to be time inconsistent. This study estimates the value of farmers stated succession plans in predicting revealed succession decisions. A stated succession plan exists when a farmer answers in a survey questionnaire that the farm is going to be transferred to a new entrant within a five-year period. The succession is revealed when the farm is transferred to a suc-cessor. Stated and revealed behaviour was estimated as a recursive Binomial Probit Model, which accounts for the censoring of the decision variables and controls for a potential correlation between the two equations. The results suggest that the succession plans, as stated by elderly farmers in the questionnaires, do not provide information that is significant and valuable in predicting true, com-pleted successions. Therefore, farmer exit should be analysed based on observed behaviour rather than on stated plans and intentions. As farm retirement plays a crucial role in determining the characteristics of structural change in agriculture, it is important to establish the factors which determine an exit from farming among eld-erly farmers and how off-farm income and income losses affect their exit choices. In this study, the observed choice of pension scheme by elderly farmers was analysed by a bivariate probit model. Despite some variations in significance and the effects of each factor, the ages of the farmer and spouse, the age and number of potential successors, farm size, income loss when retiring and the location of the farm together with the production line were found to be the most important determi-nants of early retirement and the transfer or closure of farms. Recently, the labour status of the spouse has been found to contribute significantly to individual retirement decisions. In this study, the effect of spousal retirement and economic incentives related to the timing of a farming couple s early retirement decision were analysed with a duration model. The results suggest that an expected pension in particular advances farm transfers. It was found that on farms operated by a couple, both early retirement and farm succession took place more often than on farms operated by a single person. However, the existence of a spouse delayed the timing of early retirement. Farming couples were found to co-ordinate their early retirement decisions when they both exit through agricultural retirement programmes, but such a co-ordination did not exist when one of the spouses retired under other pension schemes. Besides changes in the agricultural structure, the share and amount of off-farm income of a farm family s total income has also increased. In the study, the effect of off-farm income on farmers retirement decisions, in addition to other financial factors, was analysed. The unknown parameters were first estimated by a switching-type multivariate probit model and then by the simulated maxi-mum likelihood (SML) method, controlling for farmer specific fixed effects and serial correlation of the errors. The results suggest that elderly farmers off-farm income is a significant determinant in a farmer s choice to exit and close down the farm. However, off-farm income only has a short term effect on structural changes in agriculture since it does not significantly contribute to the timing of farm successions.

Plant communities of field margins : the effects of management and environmental factors on species composition and diversity

Agri-environmental schemes have so far resulted in only minor positive implications for the biodiversity of agricultural environments, in contrast to what has been expected. Land-use intensification has decreased landscape heterogeneity and the amount of semi-natural habitats. Field margins are uncultivated areas of permanent vegetation located adjacent to fields. Since the number of these habitats is high, investing in their quality may result in more diverse agricultural landscapes. Field margins can be considered as multifunctional habitats providing agronomic, environmental and wildlife services. This thesis aimed at examining the plant communities of different types of field margin habitats and the factors affecting their species diversity and composition. The importance of edaphic, spatial and management factors was studied on regional, landscape and habitat scales. Vegetation surveys were conducted on regional and landscape scales and a field experiment on cutting management was conducted on a habitat scale. In field margin plant communities, species appeared to be indicators of high or intermediate soil fertility and moist soil conditions. The plant species diversity found was rather low, compared with most species-rich agricultural habitats in Finland, such as dry meadows. Among regions, land-use history, main production line, natural species and human induced distribution, climate and edaphic factors were elements inducing differences in species composition. The lowest regional species diversity of field margins was related to intensive and long-term cereal production. Management by cutting and removal or grazing had a positive effect on plant species diversity. The positive effect of cutting and removal on species richness was also dependent on the adjacent source of colonizing species. Therefore, in species-poor habitats and landscapes, establishment of margins with diverse seed mixtures can be recommended for enhancing the development of species richness. However, seed mixtures should include only native species preferably local origin. Management by cutting once a year for 5 years did not result in a decline in dominance of a harmful weed species, Elymus repens, showing that E. repens probably needs cutting more frequently than once per year. Agri-environmental schemes should include long-term contracts with farmers for the establishment, and management by cutting and removal or grazing, of field margins that are several metres wide. In such schemes, the timing and frequency of management should be planned so as not to harm other taxa, such as the insects and birds that are dependent on these habitats. All accidental herbicide drifts to field margins should be avoided when spraying the cultivated area to minimize the negative effects of sprayings on vegetation. The harmful effects of herbicides can be avoided by organic farming methods.

Resonant Raman characterisation of ultra-thin nano-protective carbon layers for magnetic storage devices

Carbon thin films are very important as protective coatings for a wide range of applications such as magnetic storage devices. The key parameter of interest is the sp3 fraction, since it controls the mechanical properties of the film. Visible Raman spectroscopy is a very popular technique to determine the carbon bonding. However, the visible Raman spectra mainly depend on the configuration and clustering of the sp2 sites. This can result in the Raman spectra of different samples looking similar albeit having a different structure. Thus, visible Raman alone cannot be used to derive the sp3 content. Here we monitor the carbon bonding by using a combined study of Raman spectra taken at two wavelengths (514 and 244 nm). We show how the G peak dispersion is a very useful parameter to investigate the carbon samples and we endorse it as a production-line characterisation tool. The dispersion is proportional to the degree of disorder, thus making it possible to distinguish between graphitic and diamond-like carbon. © 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Análisis de líneas de producción utilizando técnicas tradicionales

Resumen: En el contexto dinámico de producción de los procesos de manufactura modernos, los eventos críticos, que ocasionan inconvenientes, deben ser contemplados en el marco de la planificación y control de producción. Simular el impacto sobre la productividad ocasionado por un evento crítico, capturando la totalidad de los detalles operativos, se vuelve impráctico como herramienta de solución en tiempo real. Esta tarea se simplifica haciendo abstracciones operacionales del proceso mediante funciones analíticas, con lo cual se construye un metamodelo. Este trabajo propone una aplicación del metamodelo que describe el impacto operacional del evento parada de una máquina “clave” (máquina de control numérico computarizado, CNC) que afecta a la performance/productividad de la línea de producción en forma directa al número de partes demoradas e indirecta a las variables de respuesta dinámica. La incorporación de estos metamodelos en la toma de decisiones demuestra aportar una considerable mejora en la planificación del proceso de producción.

Multi-strip MRPCs for FOPI

During the last years FOPI has developed a new ToF system as an upgrade of the existing detector based on Multi-strip Multi-gap Resistive Plate Chambers (MMRPCs). The intention is to increase the charged Kaon identification up to a laboratory momentum of 1 GeV/c and to enhance the azimuthal detector granularity. The new ToF barrel has an active area of 5 m(2) with 2400 individual strips (900 x 1.6 mm(2)) [A. Schuttauf, et al., Nucl. Phys. B 158 (2006) 52] which are read out on both sides by a custom designed electronics [M. Ciobanu, et al., IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. NS-54 (4) (2007) 1201; K. Koch, et al., IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. NS-52(3) (2005) 745]. To reach the envisaged goal a time resolution of 100 ps is needed, at a flight path of 1-1.3 m. Due to the rare production of the K- at SIS energies the efficiency of the MMRPCs has to be above 95%. We report on measurements with the detectors and electronics from the mass production line. For this purpose we used a proton beam at 2.0 and 1.25 GeV, at rates between 0.1 and 5 kHz/cm(2) to determine the timing, efficiency and rate capability of the MMRPCs

高性能机器人控制系统的研究

本文介绍了高性能机器人控制器的研制情况.该系统具有较高的控制精度,可完成对机器人和多个外部轴的协调控制.为便于国内用户使用,实现了中文界面功能键驱动的汉字编程示教盒.为适应机器人生产线的需要,提供了丰富的联网功能和生产线监控诊断功能.目前该系统已用于新松公司的6kg工业机器人产品中.

基于数字制造环境的可重构装配线仿真分析平台

以某汽车变速箱装配生产线制造系统为背景,应用多Agent制造及Holon制造模式改造传统装配生产线以提升其柔性与重构能力·针对基于agent与holon混合思想的可重构装配生产线的基础框架与实现等理论提供分析验证环境,提出应用数字制造技术构建面向可重构装配线的数字仿真验证平台·在分析面向重构装配线的仿真平台功能特征的基础上,构建了数字仿真验证平台的框架·研究了仿真平台开发中的系统集成、可视化仿真、可重构装配线性能分析等关键技术,最后给出了仿真平台的实例系统·

基于agent及holon的可重构生产线实现技术

以大批量制造的生产线制造系统为背景,研究基于agent与holon智能制造思想体系的可重构生产线制造系统实现技术,以提高生产线柔性与可重构能力为目标·深入分析了多agent制造及holonic制造模式体系下智能单元自主决策、协商合作在制造系统环境中的实现与运行机制,在以机械加工线和装配线为代表的不同的工程实际背景与应用环境下该思想体系目前的具体应用情况与实现技术·指出该思想体系面向具体工程背景的有效实施应用是理论研究的关键·最后以某汽车变速器装配生产线制造系统为应用实例,从其规划设计与运行角度,分析了可重构生产线系统的框架设计及具体实现技术与方法·

冷轧薄板厂CIMS环境下经营决策系统

本文针对冷轧机薄板生产线的生产特点 ,以鞍钢冷轧机薄板厂为具体背景 ,讨论了CIMS环境下三种为同生产驱动方式的优化经营决策方法 .(1)订单方式驱动 ;(2 )市场预测方式驱动 ;(3)订单和市场预测混合方式驱动 .对于企业的冷轧厂来说 ,非常有实用价值 .

一种柔性冲压自动化生产线系统的研制

本文介绍了一种用于大型汽车覆盖件冲压生产的柔性自动化生产线，系统由６台压机、１２台上下料机械手、１台翻转传输装置、４台穿梭传输装置及１台磁力分层装置构成．给出了生产线的主要性能指标、机械手结构简图及单元控制系统框图，简要介绍了系统的工作原理。

考虑机器故障和有限缓冲器的级联生产线系统的建模和分析

本文在建立机器故障和系统阻塞的近似模型的基础上给出了系统的排队网络模型.利用这一模型,可以对问题解析地求解,以分析系统的性能,而不需要复杂的计算.仿真结果表明,其解的精度令人满意.

激光拼焊生产线规划设计及应用

首先分析了激光拼焊产品及其特点,探讨了在激光拼焊生产线设计中的主要问题工艺流程、生产规划、生产线布局及激光拼焊质量控制等,给出了相应的对策,并在实际生产线设计中加以应用。

汽车零件精段自动生产线机械手设计

在高温、多粉尘、多有害气体的危险环境中,工业机械手的应用就尤为显得重要,我们设计的液压组合式机械手特点是巧妙地使油缸远离手爪,以防油液受热使油的黏度下降。能在振动、油污等条件下稳定和可靠的工作,在锻造水压机生产流水线中,代替人手来搬运,装卸和操作,不但减轻了工人的劳动强度还大大的提高了劳动生产率。

冷轧生产线机组作业计划过程中的投料混合比算法

为了实现冷轧生产线的均衡生产,提出了机组排产作业计划过程中的投料混合比算法。在该算法中,首先根据各道工序机组的生产能力、产品类型、故障和生产过程中的随机干扰等,计算在生产计划期内依概率平均的最佳缓冲区库存量,该库存量能够使机组实现均衡生产;其次,在现有在制库存条件下,考虑生产机组的生产能力和生产的产品类型,提出了本工序机组负荷平衡的机组排产作业计划在线生成方法;最后,结合上述两种方法,利用程序迭代搜索方式求解,既保证本道工序机组负荷平衡,也保证下道工序最佳库存的优化投料混合比,保证了冷轧生产线均衡生产的可行性。

Microwave curing for high density package

Summary form only given. Currently the vast majority of adhesive materials in electronic products are bonded using convection heating or infra-red as well as UV-curing. These thermal processing steps can take several hours to perform, slowing throughput and contributing a significant portion of the cost of manufacturing. With the demand for lighter, faster, and smaller electronic devices, there is a need for innovative material processing techniques and control methodologies. The increasing demand for smaller and cheaper devices pose engineering challenges in designing a curing systems that minimize the time required between the curing of devices in a production line, allowing access to the components during curing for alignment and testing. Microwave radiation exhibits several favorable characteristics and over the past few years has attracted increased academic and industrial attention as an alternative solution to curing of flip-chip underfills, bumps, glob top and potting cure, structural bonding, die attach, wafer processing, opto-electronics assembly as well as RF-ID tag bonding. Microwave energy fundamentally accelerates the cure kinetics of polymer adhesives. It provides a route to focus heat into the polymer materials penetrating the substrates that typically remain transparent. Therefore microwave energy can be used to minimise the temperature increase in the surrounding materials. The short path between the energy source and the cured material ensures a rapid heating rate and an overall low thermal budget. In this keynote talk, we will review the principles of microwave curing of materials for high density packing. Emphasis will be placed on recent advances within ongoing research in the UK on the realization of "open-oven" cavities, tailored to address existing challenges. Open-ovens do not require positioning of the device into the cavity through a movable door, hence being more suitable for fully automated processing. Further potential advantages of op- - en-oven curing include the possibility for simultaneous fine placement and curing of the device into a larger assembly. These capabilities promise productivity gains by combining assembly, placement and bonding into a single processing step. Moreover, the proposed design allows for selective heating within a large substrate, which can be useful particularly when the latter includes parts sensitive to increased temperatures.