Circadian time-dependent effects of fencamfamine on inhibition of dopamine uptake and release in rat striatal slices

Fencamfamine (FCF) is a central stimulant that facilitates central dopaminergic transmission through inhibition of dopamine uptake and enhanced release of the transmitter. We evaluated the changes in the inhibition of uptake and the release of striatal [3H]-dopamine at 9:00 and 21:00 h, times corresponding to maximal and minimal behavioral responses to FCF, respectively. Adult male Wistar rats (200-250 g) maintained on a 12-h light/12-h dark cycle (lights on at 7:00 h) were used. In the behavioral experiments the rats (N = 8 for each group) received FCF (3.5 mg/kg, ip) or saline at 9:00 or 21:00 h. Fifteen minutes after treatment the duration of activity (sniffing, rearing and locomotion) was recorded for 120 min. The basal motor activity was higher (28.6 ± 4.2 vs 8.4 ± 3.5 s) after saline administration at 21:00 h than at 9:00 h. FCF at a single dose significantly enhanced the basal motor activity (38.3 ± 4.5 vs 8.4 ± 3.5 s) and increased the duration of exploratory activity (38.3 ± 4.5 vs 32.1 ± 4.6 s) during the light, but not the dark phase. Two other groups of rats (N = 6 for each group) were decapitated at 9:00 and 21:00 h and striata were dissected for dopamine uptake and release assays. The inhibition of uptake and release of [3H]-dopamine were higher at 9:00 than at 21:00 h, suggesting that uptake inhibition and the release properties of FCF undergo daily variation. These data suggest that the circadian time-dependent effects of FCF might be related to a higher susceptibility of dopamine presynaptic terminals to the action of FCF during the light phase which corresponds to the rats' resting period

Circadian time-dependent effects of fencamfamine on inhibition of dopamine uptake and release in rat striatal slices

Fencamfamine (FCF) is a central stimulant that facilitates central dopaminergic transmission through inhibition of dopamine uptake and enhanced release of the transmitter. We evaluated the changes in the inhibition of uptake and the release of striatal [ 3H]-dopamine at 9:00 and 21:00 h, times corresponding to maximal and minimal behavioral responses to FCF, respectively. Adult male Wistar rats (200-250 g) maintained on a 12-h light/12-h dark cycle (lights on at 7:00 h) were used. In the behavioral experiments the rats (N = 8 for each group) received FCF (3.5 mg/kg, ip) or saline at 9:00 or 21:00 h. Fifteen minutes after treatment the duration of activity (sniffing, rearing and locomotion) was recorded for 120 min. The basal motor activity was higher (28.6 ± 4.2 vs 8.4 ± 3.5 s) after saline administration at 21:00 h than at 9:00 h. FCF at a single dose significantly enhanced the basal motor activity (38.3 ± 4.5 vs 8.4 ± 3.5 s) and increased the duration of exploratory activity (38.3 ± 4.5 vs 32.1 ± 4.6 s) during the light, but not the dark phase. Two other groups of rats (N = 6 for each group) were decapitated at 9:00 and 21:00 h and striata were dissected for dopamine uptake and relase assays. The inhibition of uptake and release of [ 3H]-dopamine were higher at 9:00 than at 21:00 h, suggesting that uptake inhibition and the release properties of FCF undergo daily variation. These data suggest that the circadian time-dependent effects of FCF might be related to a higher susceptibility of dopamine presynaptic terminals to the action of FCF during the light phase which corresponds to the rats' resting period.

Intrazelluläre Lokalisation und synaptische Ausschüttung der Neurotrophine in hippokampalen Neuronen und die Bedeutung von BDNF bei hippokampaler synaptischer Plastizität

Die Mitglieder der Neurotrophin-Familie (NGF, BDNF, NT-3 und NT-4) sind sekretierte Neuropeptide, die eine bedeutende Rolle bei der Entwicklung von Nervenzellen und bei der Modulation der synaptischen Transmission spielen. Wenngleich eine aktivitätsabhängige Sekretion von BDNF bereits gezeigt werden konnte, wurden die subzelluläre Expression und die Ausschüttung der anderen Neurotrophine bislang nur unzureichend charakterisiert. Um die Expression und die Ausschüttung aller Neurotrophine unter identischen Bedingungen untersuchen zu können, wurde in der vorliegenden Arbeit das Expressionsmuster und die synaptische Ausschüttung GFP-markierter Neurotrophine in dissoziierten hippokampalen Neuronen mit Hilfe der konfokalen Fluoreszenz-Videomikroskopie zeitaufgelöst untersucht. Zwei Phänotypen konnten unterschieden werden: der distale vesikuläre Expressionstyp mit Neurotrophin-beinhaltenden Vesikeln in distalen Neuriten, und der proximale Expressionstyp mit einer diffusen Neurotrophin-Verteilung in den Neuriten und Neurotrophin-beinhaltenden Vesikeln im Soma des Neurons und in den proximalen Dendriten. Der distale vesikuläre Phänotyp entsprach einer Verteilung des entsprechenden Neurotrophins in die sekretorischen Granula des aktivitätsabhängigen Sekretionsweges, während der proximale Phänotyp den Transport eines Neurotrophins in den konstitutiven Sekretionsweg widerspiegelte. Alle Neurotrophine erreichten in hippokampalen Neuronen prinzipiell beide Sekretionswege. Jedoch gelangten BDNF und NT-3 mit einer größeren Effizienz in den regulierten Sekretionsweg als NT-4 und NGF (BDNF: in 98% aller Zellen, NT-3: 85%, NT-4: 23% und NGF: 46%). Neurotrophine besitzen, wie es für sekretorische Peptide üblich ist, eine Vorläufersequenz, die während der Reifung des Proteins proteolytisch abgespalten wird. Die Fusion dieser Präpro-Sequenz von BDNF mit der Sequenz des maturen NT-4 bewirkte einen effizienteren Transport von NT-4 in die sekretorischen Granula des regulierten Sekretionsweges, und zeigte die große Bedeutung der Präpro-Sequenz für das zelluläre Verteilungsmuster von Neurotrophinen. In Neuronen, in denen die Neurotrophine in den regulierten Sekretionsweg transportiert wurden, konnte eine aktivitätsabhängige Sekretion der Neurotrophine an postsynaptische Strukturen glutamaterger Synapsen beobachtet werden. Die aktivitätsabhängige postsynaptische Ausschüttung der Neurotrophine zeigte eine Heterogenität in der Kinetik der Sekretion (exponentieller Abfall des Neurotrophin-Signals mit Zeitkonstanten von tau = 121 bis 307s). Die Präinkubtion mit dem Protonen-Ionophor Monensin, welcher die Neutralisation des intragranulären pH-Wertes und somit die Solubilisierung der dicht gepackten Proteinstrukturen in den Vesikeln erzwingt, erhöhte die Geschwindigkeit der Neurotrophin-Ausschüttung auf den Wert des unter physiologischen Bedingungen schnellsten Neurotrophins NT-4. Dennoch blieb die Geschwindigkeit der Neurotrophin-Ausschüttung im Vergleich zur Neurotransmitter-Ausschüttung langsam (tau = 13 ± 2 s). Diese Daten belegen eindeutig, dass die Neutralisation der sekretorischen Granula die Geschwindigkeit der Neurotrophin-Ausschüttung kritisch determiniert und die Geschwindigkeit der Neurotrophin-Ausschüttung im Vergleich zur konventionellen Neurotransmitter-Ausschüttung langsam erfolgt. Des Weiteren konnte gezeigt werden, dass das Neurotrophin BDNF effizient in distale vesikuläre Strukturen von CA1 Pyramidenzellen organotypischer Schnittkulturen des Hippokampus sortiert wird. Die basalen elektrischen Eigenschaften von CA1 Pyramidenzellen BDNF-defizienter Mäuse sind vergleichbar zu den Eigenschaften von Wildtyp Mäusen. Sowohl das Eigenpotential der CA1 Pyramidenzellen, die Form der Aktionspotentiale als auch die evozierten Antworten der CA1 Pyramdenzellen auf eine gepaarte präsynaptische Stimulation der Schaffer-Kollateralen zeigten bei BDNF-/- -, BDNF+/- - und BDNF+/+ -Mäusen keine signifikanten Unterschiede. Die Fähigkeit der CA1 Pyramidenzellen auf eine hochfrequente Reizung mit einer Langzeitpotenzierung (LTP) der postsynaptischen Ströme zu reagieren ist jedoch bei den BDNF-defizienten Mäusen beinträchtigt. Eine verminderte Induktion von LTP war in den BDNF-defizienten Mäusen nach tetanischer Stimulation der präsynaptischen Schaffer-Kollateralen und simultaner postsynaptischer Depolarisation der CA1 Pyramidenzelle zu beobachten.

Physical and functional interaction between the dopamine transporter and the synaptic vesicle protein synaptogyrin-3.

Uptake through the dopamine transporter (DAT) represents the primary mechanism used to terminate dopaminergic transmission in brain. Although it is well known that dopamine (DA) taken up by the transporter is used to replenish synaptic vesicle stores for subsequent release, the molecular details of this mechanism are not completely understood. Here, we identified the synaptic vesicle protein synaptogyrin-3 as a DAT interacting protein using the split ubiquitin system. This interaction was confirmed through coimmunoprecipitation experiments using heterologous cell lines and mouse brain. DAT and synaptogyrin-3 colocalized at presynaptic terminals from mouse striatum. Using fluorescence resonance energy transfer microscopy, we show that both proteins interact in live neurons. Pull-down assays with GST (glutathione S-transferase) proteins revealed that the cytoplasmic N termini of both DAT and synaptogyrin-3 are sufficient for this interaction. Furthermore, the N terminus of DAT is capable of binding purified synaptic vesicles from brain tissue. Functional assays revealed that synaptogyrin-3 expression correlated with DAT activity in PC12 and MN9D cells, but not in the non-neuronal HEK-293 cells. These changes were not attributed to changes in transporter cell surface levels or to direct effect of the protein-protein interaction. Instead, the synaptogyrin-3 effect on DAT activity was abolished in the presence of the vesicular monoamine transporter-2 (VMAT2) inhibitor reserpine, suggesting a dependence on the vesicular DA storage system. Finally, we provide evidence for a biochemical complex involving DAT, synaptogyrin-3, and VMAT2. Collectively, our data identify a novel interaction between DAT and synaptogyrin-3 and suggest a physical and functional link between DAT and the vesicular DA system.

Depolarization-dependent synaptic potentiation and hyperexcitability induced by a Ca2+-independent trigger

Despite vast research efforts since Cajal's seminal thoughts on the adaptation of the nervous system, researchers have only recently begun to understand the diversity of forms of neuronal plasticity and its mechanisms. All known forms of activity-dependent neuronal plasticity utilize alterations in [Ca 2+]i as a signal of changes in the membrane voltage. Ca 2+ sensors trigger modifications in excitability or synaptic strength that last from seconds to weeks and presumably years. Intriguingly, Kunjilwar et al., (unpublished observations) discovered in peripheral sensory axons of Aplysia that the induction of depolarization-dependent long-term axonal hyperexcitability does not require Ca2+ transients. Here we show that induction of depolarization-dependent intermediate-term and long-term synaptic potentiation in Aplysia occurs in conditions that prevent Ca2+ entry through voltage-gated channels and elevation of [Ca2+]i. We found that the intermediate-term synaptic potentiation induced under conditions expected to prevent Ca 2+ transients is associated with increased excitability of sensory neuron axons near presynaptic terminals, suggesting that the synaptic potentiation involves a presynaptic locus. The Ca2+-independent intermediate- and long-term synaptic potentiation appeared similar to previously reported Ca2+-dependent modifications in Aplysia. ^

Long-term potentiation and dual-component quantal signaling in the dentate gyrus

Long-term potentiation (LTP) of excitatory transmission is an important candidate cellular mechanism for the storage of memories in the mammalian brain. The subcellular phenomena that underlie the persistent increase in synaptic strength, however, are incompletely understood. A potentially powerful method to detect a presynaptic increase in glutamate release is to examine the effect of LTP induction on the rate at which the use-dependent blocker MK-801 attenuates successive N-methyl-d-aspartic acid (NMDA) receptor-mediated synaptic signals. This method, however, has given apparently contradictory results when applied in hippocampal CA1. The inconsistency could be explained if NMDA receptors were opened by glutamate not only released from local presynaptic terminals, but also diffusing from synapses on neighboring cells where LTP was not induced. Here we examine the effect of pairing-induced LTP on the MK-801 blocking rate in two afferent inputs to dentate granule cells. LTP in the medial perforant path is associated with a significant increase in the MK-801 blocking rate, implying a presynaptic increase in glutamate release probability. An enhanced MK-801 blocking rate is not seen, however, in the lateral perforant path. This result still could be compatible with a presynaptic contribution to LTP in the lateral perforant path if intersynaptic cross-talk occurred. In support of this hypothesis, we show that NMDA receptors consistently sense more quanta of glutamate than do α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptors. In the medial perforant path, in contrast, there is no significant difference in the number of quanta mediated by the two receptors. These results support a presynaptic contribution to LTP and imply that differences in intersynaptic cross-talk can complicate the interpretation of experiments designed to detect changes in transmitter release.

UNC-11, a Caenorhabditis elegans AP180 Homologue, Regulates the Size and Protein Composition of Synaptic Vesicles

The unc-11 gene of Caenorhabditis elegans encodes multiple isoforms of a protein homologous to the mammalian brain-specific clathrin-adaptor protein AP180. The UNC-11 protein is expressed at high levels in the nervous system and at lower levels in other tissues. In neurons, UNC-11 is enriched at presynaptic terminals but is also present in cell bodies. unc-11 mutants are defective in two aspects of synaptic vesicle biogenesis. First, the SNARE protein synaptobrevin is mislocalized, no longer being exclusively localized to synaptic vesicles. The reduction of synaptobrevin at synaptic vesicles is the probable cause of the reduced neurotransmitter release observed in these mutants. Second, unc-11 mutants accumulate large vesicles at synapses. We propose that the UNC-11 protein mediates two functions during synaptic vesicle biogenesis: it recruits synaptobrevin to synaptic vesicle membranes and it regulates the size of the budded vesicle during clathrin coat assembly.

Synaptic and extrasynaptic γ-aminobutyric acid type A receptor clusters in rat hippocampal cultures during development

We have simultaneously measured the expression of postsynaptic γ-aminobutyric acid type A (GABAA) receptor clusters and of presynaptic boutons in neonatal rat hippocampal cultures between days 1 and 30. GABAA receptors were labeled with antibodies recognizing the extracellular domains of β2/3 and γ2 subunits. Boutons were visualized by activity-dependent uptake of the styryl dye FM4-64, or by antibodies against the presynaptic vesicular protein SV2 or the GABA-synthesizing enzyme glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD). GABAA receptor clusters could be seen in living neurons already 6 h after culturing, much before presynaptic markers could be identified in nerve terminals. The densities of receptor clusters that contained the β2/3 subunits were constant between days 10 and 30 in culture, whereas γ2 subunit-containing clusters fluctuated and reached a maximum on day 20. SV2 and GAD staining could be measured from day 2 onwards. Clustering of GAD in presynaptic terminals and FM4-64 uptake were observed only at day 5 and afterward. SV2 staining and FM4-64 uptake increased in parallel between days 5 and 20 and remained constant thereafter. GAD-stained boutons were fewer than those labeled with other, less specific, presynaptic stains. They reached a maximum on day 20 and fell again toward day 30. Double labeling of GABAA receptors and of presynaptic boutons in neurons during differentiation showed that, even after 30 days in culture, large fractions of GABAA receptor clusters containing β2/3 and/or γ2 subunits remained extrasynaptic.

Norepinephrine transporters have channel modes of conduction.

Neurotransmitter transporters couple to existing ion gradients to achieve reuptake of transmitter into presynaptic terminals. For coupled cotransport, substrates and ions cross the membrane in fixed stoichiometry. This is in contrast to ion channels, which carry an arbitrary number of ions depending on the channel open time. Members of the gamma-aminobutyric acid transporter gene family presumably function with fixed stoichiometry in which a set number of ions cotransport with one transmitter molecule. Here we report channel-like events from a presumably fixed stoichiometry [norepinephrine (NE)+, Na+, and Cl-], human NE (hNET) in the gamma-aminobutyric acid transporter gene family. These events are stimulated by NE and by guanethidine, an hNET substrate, and they are blocked by cocaine and the antidepressant desipramine. Voltage-clamp data combined with NE uptake data from these same cells indicate that hNETs have two functional modes of conduction: a classical transporter mode (T-mode) and a novel channel mode (C-mode). Both T-mode and C-mode are gated by the same substrates and antagonized by the same blockers. T-mode is putatively electrogenic because the transmitter and cotransported ions sum to one net charge. However, C-mode carries virtually all of the transmitter-induced current, even though it occurs with low probability. This is because each C-mode opening transports hundreds of charges per event. The existence of a channel mode of conduction in a previously established fixed-stoichiometry transporter suggests the appearance of an aqueous pore through the transporter protein during the transport cycle and may have significance for transporter regulation.

Induction of long-term potentiation is associated with major ultrastructural changes of activated synapses.

Long-term potentiation (LTP), an increase in synaptic efficacy believed to underlie learning and memory mechanisms, has been proposed to involve structural modifications of synapses. Precise identification of the morphological changes associated with LTP has however been hindered by the difficulty in distinguishing potentiated or activated from nonstimulated synapses. Here we used a cytochemical method that allowed detection in CA1 hippocampus at the electron microscopy level of a stimulation-specific, D-AP5-sensitive accumulation of calcium in postsynaptic spines and presynaptic terminals following application of high-frequency trains. Morphometric analyses carried out 30-40 min after LTP induction revealed dramatic ultrastructural differences between labeled and nonlabeled synapses. The majority of labeled synapses (60%) exhibited perforated postsynaptic densities, whereas this proportion was only 20% in nonlabeled synaptic contacts. Labeled synaptic profiles were also characterized by a larger apposition zone between pre- and postsynaptic structures, longer postsynaptic densities, and enlarged spine profiles. These results add strong support to the idea that ultrastructural modifications and specifically an increase in perforated synapses are associated with LTP induction in field CA1 of hippocampus and they suggest that a majority of activated contacts may exhibit such changes.

Neurotrophins stimulate phosphorylation of synapsin I by MAP kinase and regulate synapsin I-actin interactions.

The ability of neurotrophins to modulate the survival and differentiation of neuronal populations involves the Trk/MAP (mitogen-activated protein kinase) kinase signaling pathway. More recently, neurotrophins have also been shown to regulate synaptic transmission. The synapsins are a family of neuron-specific phosphoproteins that play a role in regulation of neurotransmitter release, in axonal elongation, and in formation and maintenance of synaptic contacts. We report here that synapsin I is a downstream effector for the neurotrophin/Trk/MAP kinase cascade. Using purified components, we show that MAP kinase stoichiometrically phosphorylated synapsin I at three sites (Ser-62, Ser-67, and Ser-549). Phosphorylation of these sites was detected in rat brain homogenates, in cultured cerebrocortical neurons, and in isolated presynaptic terminals. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor upregulated phosphorylation of synapsin I at MAP kinase-dependent sites in intact cerebrocortical neurons and PC12 cells, respectively, while KCl- induced depolarization of cultured neurons decreased the phosphorylation state at these sites. MAP kinase-dependent phosphorylation of synapsin I significantly reduced its ability to promote G-actin polymerization and to bundle actin filaments. The results suggest that MAP kinase-dependent phosphorylation of synapsin I may contribute to the modulation of synaptic plasticity by neurotrophins and by other signaling pathways that converge at the level of MAP kinase activation.

Low-calcium-induced enhancement of chemical synaptic transmission from photoreceptors to horizontal cells in the vertebrate retina.

According to the classical calcium hypothesis of synaptic transmission, the release of neurotransmitter from presynaptic terminals occurs through an exocytotic process triggered by depolarization-induced presynaptic calcium influx. However, evidence has been accumulating in the last two decades indicating that, in many preparations, synaptic transmitter release can persist or even increase when calcium is omitted from the perfusing saline, leading to the notion of a "calcium-independent release" mechanism. Our study shows that the enhancement of synaptic transmission between photoreceptors and horizontal cells of the vertebrate retina induced by low-calcium media is caused by an increase of calcium influx into presynaptic terminals. This paradoxical effect is accounted for by modifications of surface potential on the photoreceptor membrane. Since lowering extracellular calcium concentration may likewise enhance calcium influx into other nerve cells, other experimental observations of "calcium-independent" release may be reaccommodated within the framework of the classical calcium hypothesis without invoking unconventional processes.

Determinants of the G protein-dependent opioid modulation of neuronal calcium channels.

The modulation of a family of cloned neuronal calcium channels by stimulation of a coexpressed mu opioid receptor was studied by transient expression in Xenopus oocytes. Activation of the morphine receptor with the synthetic enkephalin [D-Ala2,N-Me-Phe4,Gly-ol5]enkephalin (DAMGO) resulted in a rapid inhibition of alpha1A (by approximately 20%) and alpha1B (by approximately 55%) currents while alpha1C and alpha1E currents were not significantly affected. The opioid-induced effects on alpha1A and alpha1B currents were blocked by pertussis toxin and the GTP analogue guanosine 5'-[beta-thio]diphosphate. Similar to modulation of native calcium currents, DAMGO induced a slowing of the activation kinetics and exhibited a voltage-dependent inhibition that was partially relieved by application of strong depolarizing pulses. alpha1A currents were still inhibited in the absence of coexpressed Ca channel alpha2 and beta subunits, suggesting that the response is mediated by the alpha1 subunit. Furthermore, the sensitivity of alpha1A currents to DAMGO-induced inhibition was increased approximately 3-fold in the absence of a beta subunit. Overall, the results show that the alpha1A (P/Q type) and the alpha1B (N type) calcium channels are selectively modulated by a GTP-binding protein (G protein). The results raise the possibility of competitive interactions between beta subunit and G protein binding to the alpha1 subunit, shifting gating in opposite directions. At presynaptic terminals, the G protein-dependent inhibition may result in decreased synaptic transmission and play a key role in the analgesic effect of opioids and morphine.

Impairment of synaptic vesicle clustering and of synaptic transmission, and increased seizure propensity, in synapsin I-deficient mice.

Synapsin I has been proposed to be involved in the modulation of neurotransmitter release by controlling the availability of synaptic vesicles for exocytosis. To further understand the role of synapsin I in the function of adult nerve terminals, we studied synapsin I-deficient mice generated by homologous recombination. The organization of synaptic vesicles at presynaptic terminals of synapsin I-deficient mice was markedly altered: densely packed vesicles were only present in a narrow rim at active zones, whereas the majority of vesicles were dispersed throughout the terminal area. This was in contrast to the organized vesicle clusters present in terminals of wild-type animals. Release of glutamate from nerve endings, induced by K+,4-aminopyridine, or a Ca2+ ionophore, was markedly decreased in synapsin I mutant mice. The recovery of synaptic transmission after depletion of neurotransmitter by high-frequency stimulation was greatly delayed. Finally, synapsin I-deficient mice exhibited a strikingly increased response to electrical stimulation, as measured by electrographic and behavioral seizures. These results provide strong support for the hypothesis that synapsin I plays a key role in the regulation of nerve terminal function in mature synapses.

The role of cannabinoid receptors in modulation of GABAergic neurotransmission in the rat medial entorhinal cortex in vitro

Type 1 cannabinoid receptors (CB1R) have a well established role in modulating GABAergic signalling with the central nervous system, and are thought to be the only type present at GABAergic presynaptic terminals. In the medial entorhinal cortex (mEC), some cortical layers show high levels of ongoing GABAergic signalling (namely layer II) while others show relatively low levels (layer V). Using whole-cell patch clamp techniques, I have, for the first time, demonstrated the presence of functional CB1R in both deep and superficial layers of the mEC. Furthermore, using a range of highly specific ligands for both CB1R and CB2R, I present strong pharmacological evidence for CB2Rs being present in both deep and superficial layers of the mEC in the adult rat brain. In brain slices taken at earlier points in CNS development (P8-12), I have shown that while both CB1R and CB2R specific ligands do modulate GABAergic signalling at early developmental stages, antagonists/ inverse agonists and full agonists have similar effects, and serve only to reduce GABAergic signalling. These data suggest that the full cannabinoid signalling mechanisms at this early stage in synaptogenesis are not yet in place. During these whole-cell studies, I have developed and refined a novel recording technique, using an amantidine derivative (IEM1460) which allows inhibitory postsynaptic currents to be recorded under conditions in which glutamate receptors are not blocked and network activity remains high. Finally I have shown that bath applied CB1 and CB2 receptor antagonists/ inverse agonists are capable of modulating kainic acid induced persistent oscillatory activity in mEC. Inverse agonists suppressed oscillatory activity in the superficial layers of the mEC while it was enhanced in the deeper layers. It seems likely that cannabinoid receptors modulate the inhibitory neuronal activity that underlies network oscillations.