State of the art reviews : measurement of physical activity in children and adolescents

To date, a wide range of methods has been used to measure physical activity in children and adolescents. These include self-report methods such as questionnaires, activity logs, and diaries as well as objective measures of physical activity such as direct observation, doubly labeled water, heart rate monitoring, accelerometers, and pedometers. The purpose of this review is to overview the methods currently being used to measure physical activity in children and adolescents. For each measurement approach, new developments and/or innovations are identified and discussed. Particular attention is given to the use of accelerometers and the calibration of accelerometer output to units of energy expenditure to developing children.

Objective measurement of physical activity in youth : current issues, future directions

Second-generation activity monitors have revolutionized the way in which we measure youth physical activity. Use of the monitors avoids the problems associated with self-report methods and allows for the estimation of physical activity patterns over time. This article examines important methodological issues related to the use of activity monitors in children and adolescents.

Physical activity parenting measurement and research : challenges, explanations and solutions

Physical activity (PA) parenting research has proliferated over the past decade, with findings verifying the influential role that parents play in children's emerging PA behaviors. This knowledge, however, has not translated into effective family-based PA interventions. During a preconference workshop to the 2012 International Society for Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity annual meeting, a PA parenting workgroup met to: (1) Discuss challenges in PA parenting research that may limit its translation, (2) identify explanations or reasons for such challenges, and (3) recommend strategies for future research. Challenges discussed by the workgroup included a proliferation of disconnected and inconsistently measured constructs, a limited understanding of the dimensions of PA parenting, and a narrow conceptualization of hypothesized moderators of the relationship between PA parenting and child PA. Potential reasons for such challenges emphasized by the group included a disinclination to employ theory when developing measures and examining predictors and outcomes of PA parenting as well as a lack of agreed-upon measurement standards. Suggested solutions focused on the need to link PA parenting research with general parenting research, define and adopt rigorous standards of measurement, and identify new methods to assess PA parenting. As an initial step toward implementing these recommendations, the workgroup developed a conceptual model that: (1) Integrates parenting dimensions from the general parenting literature into the conceptualization of PA parenting, (2) draws on behavioral and developmental theory, and (3) emphasizes areas which have been neglected to date including precursors to PA parenting and effect modifiers.

Measurement and correlates of physical activity behavior among older minority women

Research has shown that physical activity serves a preventive function against the development of several major chronic diseases. However, studying physical activity and its health benefits is difficult due to the complexity of measuring physical activity. The overall aim of this research is to contribute to the knowledge of both correlates and measurement of physical activity. Data from the Women On The Move study were used for this study (n = 260), and the results are presented in three papers. The first paper focuses on the measurement of physical activity and compares an alternate coding method with the standard coding method for calculating energy expenditure from a 7-day activity diary. Results indicate that the alternative coding scheme could produce similar results to the standard coding in terms of total activity expenditure. Even though agreement could not be achieved by dimension, the study lays the groundwork for a coding system that saves considerable amount of time in coding activity and has the ability to estimate expenditure more accurately for activities that can be performed at varying intensity levels. The second paper investigates intra-day variability in physical activity by estimating the variation in energy expenditure for workers and non-workers and identifying the number of days of diary self-report necessary to reliably estimate activity. The results indicate that 8 days of activity are needed to reliably estimate total activity for individuals who don't work and 12 days of activity are needed to reliably estimate total activity for those who work. Days of diary self-report required by dimension for those who don't work range from 6 to 16 and for those who work from 6 to 113. The final paper presents findings on the relationship between daily living activity and Type A behavior pattern. Significant findings are observed for total activity and leisure activity with the Temperament Scale summary score. Significant findings are also observed for total activity, household chores, work, leisure activity, exercise, and inactivity with one or more of the individual items on the Temperament Scale. However, even though some significant findings were observed, the overall models did not reveal meaningful associations. ^

Increasing physical activity among women with young children: Results from the Proactive Mums Project

Context Evidence from the Australian Longitudinal Study of Women's Health suggests that mothers of young children have lower levels of physical activity (PA) than women of similar age without children. Objectives The aim of the ProActive Mums project was to determine the relative efficacy of two strategies designed to increase the proportion of mothers of young children who are meeting current PA guidelines, utilising child care centres (CCCs) as the setting for recruitment. Study Design The project used a randomised (after stratification to ensure even representation of CCCs from differing socio-economic areas) design incorporating repeated data collection from women in three groups, each consisting of 7 childcare centres (CCCs). Baseline surveys were completed by 554 mothers, with follow-up data collection immediately post-Intervention (8 weeks after baseline) and again 5 months later. Women from CCCs in Group 1 (control) received only the surveys throughout the duration of the project. Women from CCCs in Group 2 (information only) were given a print intervention, and women from CCCs in Group 3 were (in addition to being given the same print intervention as women from CCCs in Group 2) invited to to contribute to the development of, and participate in, strategies for the promotion of PA among mothers of young children. The two intervention strategies were extensively evaluated through a series of surveys and interviews. The Intervention The print intervention prescribed for women from CCCs in Group 2 and Group 3 consisted of an 8-page booklet containing motivational messages and information about physical activity. Women from CCCs in Group 3 were also invited to attend meetings at their CCC to identify strategies for increasing their PA. Contacts were made with key stakeholders in the community, including managers of sporting and recreation facilities, childcare service providers, and local councils. A wide range of strategies was developed during the intervention phase of the project, which specifically focused on the need to increase partner support and self-efficacy (or the confidence to be physically active). Results The mean age of participants was 33 (+ 4.8) years, and the mean number of children per family unit was 2.2 (± 0.9). At baseline, fewer than half the women were meeting current guidelines for adequate PA for health benefit, and there were no significant differences between groups in the proportion of women who were adequately active for health benefit. Women in Group 3 were significantly more likely to meet the guidelines at post-intervention follow-up than controls [OR = 1.71 (1.05-2.77)] after controlling for age and PA at baseline. There was no significant effect of the print intervention alone on meeting guidelines at post-intervention follow-up compared with controls, after controlling for age and PA at baseline [OR = 1.15 (0.70-1.89)]. Changes in Partner Support (PS) and Self Efficacy (SE) significantly predicted meeting current PA guidelines at post-intervention follow-up after controlling for baseline PA [∆ PS: OR = 2.29 (1.46-3.58); ∆ SE: OR = 1.86 (1.17- 2.94)]. The intervention effect in Group 3 was not maintained at long-term follow-up. Conclusions The findings indicate that a community participation approach that facilitates increased partner support and self-efficacy can be effective in increasing PA among mothers of young children. Changes in physical activity were found to be mediated by changes in partner support and self-efficacy for physical activity, suggesting that the intervention successfully targeted the individual characteristics it intended to, and that these variables do play an important role in increasing physical activity among women with young children. It is clear that further work needs to be done to explore methods of translating the short-term intervention effect shown in this study into long-term changes in PA behaviour. This study also provided insight into measurement issues in PA research and raised questions about self-report measures of PA and perceived constraints to being physically active. The results from post-study qualitative interviews suggest that many women at this life-stage experience time constraints which, when accompanied by a lack of partner support and financial constraints, make leisure-time PA virtually impossible for many women. Future strategies might focus on targeting this population immediately prior to this life-stage in an attempt to encourage habitual physical activity before women have children. Increasing PA in this population should also address the entire family unit, and consider the way leisure-time is negotiated among the adults within a household. Social change and increased awareness of the range of benefits of PA for women with children are additional strategies to be considered.

The relationship between fundamental movement skills and self-reported physical activity during Finnish junior high school

Background: Previous studies have shown that fundamental movement skills (FMS) and physical activity are related. Specifically, earlier studies have demonstrated that the ability to perform a variety of FMS increases the likelihood of children participating in a range of physical activities throughout their lives. To date, however, there have not been studies focused on the development of, or the relationship between, these variables through junior high school (that is, between the ages of 13 and 15). Such studies might provide important insights into the relationships between FMS and physical activity during adolescence, and suggest ways to design more effective physical education programmes for adolescents. Purpose: The main purposes of the study are: (1) to investigate the development of the students' self-reported physical activity and FMS from Grade 7 to Grade 9, (2) to analyse the associations among the students' FMS and self-reported physical activity through junior high school, (3) to analyse whether there are gender differences in research tasks one and/or two. Participants and setting: The participants in the study were 152 Finnish students, aged 13 and enrolled in Grade 7 at the commencement of the study. The sample included 66 girls and 86 boys who were drawn from three junior high schools in Middle Finland. Research design and data collection: Both the FMS tests and questionnaires pertaining to self-reported physical activity were completed annually during a 3 year period: in August (when the participants were in Grade 7), January (Grade 8), and in May (Grade 9). Data analysis: Repeated measures multivariate analysis of variances (MANOVAs) were used to analyse the interaction between gender and time (three measurement points) in FMS test sumscores and self-reported physical activity scores. The relationships between self-reported physical activity scores and fundamental movement skill sumscores through junior high school were analysed using Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) with LISREL 8.80 software. Findings: The MANOVA for self-reported physical activity demonstrated that both genders' physical activity decreased through junior high school. The MANOVA for the FMS revealed that the boys' FMS sumscore increased whereas the girls' skills decreased through junior high school. The SEM and squared multiple correlations revealed FMS in Grades 7 and 8 as well as physical activity in Grade 9 explained FMS in Grade 9. The portion of prediction was 69% for the girls and 55% for the boys. Additionally, physical activity measured in Grade 7 and FMS measured in Grade 9 explained physical activity in Grade 9. The portion of prediction was 12% for the girls and 29% for the boys. In the boys' group, three additional paths were found; FMS in Grade 7 explained physical activity in Grade 9, physical activity in Grade 7 explained FMS in Grade 8, and physical activity in Grade 7 explained physical activity in Grade 8. Conclusions: The study suggests that supporting and encouraging FMS and physical activity are co-related and when considering combined scores there is a greater likelihood of healthy lifelong outcomes. Therefore, the conclusion can be drawn that FMS curriculum in school-based PE is a plausible way to ensure good lifelong outcomes. Earlier studies support that school physical education plays an important role in developing students FMS and is in a position to thwart the typical decline of physical activity in adolescence. These concepts are particularly important for adolescent girls as this group reflects the greatest decline in physical activity during the adolescent period.

Methodological challenges in conducting a systematic review of community wide interventions to increase physical activity

Introduction: Evaluating the effectiveness of interventions designed to increase the physical activity in communities is often a difficult and complex task, requiring considerable expertise and investment, and often constrained by methodological limitations. These limitations, in turn, create additional challenges when these studies are used in systematic reviews as they hinder the confidence, precision and interpretation of results. The objective of this paper is to summarise the methodological challenges posed in conducting a systematic review of community-wide physical activity interventions to help inform those conducting future primary research and systematic reviews. Methods: We conducted a Cochrane systematic review of community-wide interventions to increase physical activity. We assessed the methodological quality of the included studies. We will investigate these in greater detail, particularly in relation to the potential impact on measures of effect, confidence in results, generalizability of results and general interpretation. Results: The systematic review was conducted and has been published in the Cochrane Library. A logic model was helpful in defining and interpreting the studies. Many studies of unsuitable study design were excluded; however several important methodological limitations of the primary studies evaluating community-wide physical activity interventions emerged. These included: - the failure to use validated tools to measure physical activity; - issues associated with pre and post test designs; - inadequate sampling of populations; - poor control groups; and - intervention and measurement protocols of inadequate duration. Although it is challenging to undertake rigorous evaluations of complex interventions, these issues result in significant uncertainty over the effectiveness of these interventions, and the possible factors required for a community-wide intervention to be successful. In particular, the combination of several of these limitations (e.g. un-validated tools, inadequate sampling, and short duration) is that studies may lack the sensitivity to detect any meaningful change. Multiple publications of findings for the same study also made interpretation difficult; however, interventions with parallel qualitative publications were helpful. Discussion: Evaluating community wide interventions to increase physical activity in a rigorous way is incredibly challenging. These findings reflect these challenges but have important ramifications for researchers conducting primary studies to determine the efficacy of such interventions, as well as for researchers conducting systematic reviews. This new review shows that the inadequacies of design and evaluation are continuing. It is hoped that the adoption of such suggestions may aid in the development of systematic reviews, but more importantly, in enabling translation of such findings into policy and practice.

Development and validation of a new self-report instrument for measuring sedentary behaviors and light-intensity physical activity in adults

Background Low levels of physical activity and high levels of sedentary behavior (SB) are major public health concerns. This study was designed to develop and validate the 7-day Sedentary (S) and Light Intensity Physical Activity (LIPA) Log (7-day SLIPA Log), a self-report measure of specific daily behaviors. Method To develop the log, 62 specific SB and LIPA behaviors were chosen from the Compendium of Physical Activities. Face-to-face interviews were conducted with 32 sedentary volunteers to identify domains and behaviors of SB and LIPA. To validate the log, a further 22 sedentary adults were recruited to wear the GT3X for 7 consecutive days and nights. Results Pearson correlations (r) between the 7-day SLIPA Log and GT3X were significant for sedentary (r =.86, p < 0.001), for LIPA (r =.80, p < 0.001). Lying and sitting postures were positively correlated with GT3X output (r =.60 and r =.64, p < 0.001, respectively). No significant correlation was found for standing posture (r =.14, p = 0.53).The kappa values between the 7-day SLIPA Log and GT3X variables ranged from 0.09–0.61, indicating poor to good agreement. Conclusion The 7-day SLIPA Log is a valid self-report measure of SB and LIPA in specific behavioral domains.

Examining correlates of self-reported and objectively measured physical activity among retirement village residents

Aim Physical activity (PA) patterns of retirement village residents were investigated using self-report and objective measures. Methods Residents (n = 323) from retirement villages in Perth, Australia, were surveyed on PA behaviour and various demographic, residency, health-related and mobility factors. Most participants wore accelerometers for 7 days. Retirement village managers (n = 32) were surveyed on village descriptive characteristics, including the provision of amenities and facilities. Logistic regression models examined village and resident characteristics associated with PA. Results Based on objective measurement, only 27.1% of participants were sufficiently active (n = 288). Walking was one of the most popular PA modes. Few village characteristics were associated with PA; however, villages located in more walkable neighbourhoods increased participants’ odds of transport walking. Travelling outside the village daily also increased PA odds. Conclusions Most residents were insufficiently active to gain health benefits. Considering individual and environmental factors, within the retirement village and neighbourhood settings, and associations with PA, warrants attention.

Do community-wide interventions increase physical activity? S1TEP

Background Not getting enough physical activity leads to poorer health. Regular physical activity can reduce the risk of chronic disease and improve one’s health and well-being. The lack of physical activity is a common and growing problem in many countries. We sought to evaluate the effects of community wide, multi-strategic interventions upon the physical activity patterns of populations. Method We undertook a Cochrane Systematic Review which included an extensive search of databases, including studies which met pre-determined criteria, and conducted independent risk of bias assessment and data extraction. Results After the selection process, 25 studies were included in the review. The strategies varied by the number and type of components and their intensity. No studies were identified as low risk of bias. Sixteen studies were identified as having a high risk of bias and thus untrustworthy. Nine studies were of considered to have an unclear risk of bias and some studies held back data they collected. The effects reported were inconsistent across the studies and the measures. Some of the better designed studies showed no improvement in measures of physical activity. Interventions which have an environmental change component seemed to be a promising direction. Those interventions which were primarily a mass media campaign were less likely to be successful. Conclusions Although numerous studies have been undertaken, there is considerable inconsistency in the findings of the available studies and this is confounded by serious methodological issues within the included studies. Simply combining interventions does not necessarily result in increased physical activity as many such studies, including some long term programs, failed to demonstrate efficacy. There is a clear need for well-designed studies and these studies should focus on the quality of measurement of physical activity. The review is currently being updated with newer studies.