Responses of leaf traits to climatic gradients: adaptive variation versus compositional shifts

Dynamic global vegetation models (DGVMs) typically rely on plant functional types (PFTs), which are assigned distinct environmental tolerances and replace one another progressively along environmental gradients. Fixed values of traits are assigned to each PFT; modelled trait variation along gradients is thus driven by PFT replacement. But empirical studies have revealed "universal" scaling relationships (quantitative trait variations with climate that are similar within and between species, PFTs and communities); and continuous, adaptive trait variation has been proposed to replace PFTs as the basis for next-generation DGVMs. Here we analyse quantitative leaf-trait variation on long temperature and moisture gradients in China with a view to understanding the relative importance of PFT replacement vs. continuous adaptive variation within PFTs. Leaf area (LA), specific leaf area (SLA), leaf dry matter content (LDMC) and nitrogen content of dry matter were measured on all species at 80 sites ranging from temperate to tropical climates and from dense forests to deserts. Chlorophyll fluorescence traits and carbon, phosphorus and potassium contents were measured at 47 sites. Generalized linear models were used to relate log-transformed trait values to growing-season temperature and moisture indices, with or without PFT identity as a predictor, and to test for differences in trait responses among PFTs. Continuous trait variation was found to be ubiquitous. Responses to moisture availability were generally similar within and between PFTs, but biophysical traits (LA, SLA and LDMC) of forbs and grasses responded differently from woody plants. SLA and LDMC responses to temperature were dominated by the prevalence of evergreen PFTs with thick, dense leaves at the warm end of the gradient. Nutrient (N, P and K) responses to climate gradients were generally similar within all PFTs. Area-based nutrients generally declined with moisture; Narea and Karea declined with temperature, but Parea increased with temperature. Although the adaptive nature of many of these trait-climate relationships is understood qualitatively, a key challenge for modelling is to predict them quantitatively. Models must take into account that community-level responses to climatic gradients can be influenced by shifts in PFT composition, such as the replacement of deciduous by evergreen trees, which may run either parallel or counter to trait variation within PFTs. The importance of PFT shifts varies among traits, being important for biophysical traits but less so for physiological and chemical traits. Finally, models should take account of the diversity of trait values that is found in all sites and PFTs, representing the "pool" of variation that is locally available for the natural adaptation of ecosystem function to environmental change.

The impact of fragmentation and density regulation on forest succession in the Atlantic rain forest

The Atlantic Rain Forest, an important biodiversity hot spot, has faced severe habitat loss since the last century which has resulted in a highly fragmented landscape with a large number of small forest patches (<100 ha). For conservation planning it is essential to understand how current and future forest regeneration depends on ecological processes, fragment size and the connection to the regional seed pool. We have investigated the following questions by applying the forest growth simulation model FORMIND to the situation of the Atlantic Forest in the state of Sao Paulo, SE Brazil: (1) which set of parameters describing the local regeneration and level of density regulation can reproduce the biomass distribution and stem density of an old growth forest in a reserve? (2) Which additional processes apart from those describing the dynamics of an old growth forest, drive forest succession of small isolated fragments? (3) Which role does external seed input play during succession? Therefore, more than 300 tree species have been classified into nine plant functional types (PFTs), which are characterized by maximum potential height and shade tolerance. We differentiate between two seed dispersal modes: (i) local dispersal, i.e. all seedlings originated from fertile trees within the simulated area and (ii) external seed rain. Local seed dispersal has been parameterized following the pattern oriented approach, using biomass estimates of old growth forest. We have found that moderate density regulation is essential to achieve coexistence for a broad range of regeneration parameters. Considering the expected uncertainty and variability in the regeneration processes it is important that the forest dynamics are robust to variations in the regeneration parameters. Furthermore, edge effects such as increased mortality at the border and external seed rain have been necessary to reproduce the patterns for small isolated fragments. Overall, simulated biomass is much lower in the fragments compared to the continuous forest, whereas shade tolerant species are affected most strongly by fragmentation. Our simulations can supplement empirical studies by extrapolating local knowledge on edge effects of fragments to larger temporal and spatial scales. In particular our results show the importance of external seed rain and therefore highlight the importance of structural connectivity between regenerating fragments and mature forest stands. (C) 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Padrões de espécies e tipos funcionais de plantas lenhosas em bordas de floresta e campo sob influência do fogo

Mosaicos naturais de floresta e campo são freqüentes no sul do Brasil, apesar das condições climáticas em geral serem favoráveis às formações florestais. Os campos portanto têm sido considerados um tipo de vegetação relictual de um clima mais frio e seco. Dados paleopalinológicos têm confirmado a hipótese de expansão florestal proposta por Lindman e Rambo com base em evidências fitogeográficas. Porém, fogo e pastejo têm sido utilizados no manejo dos campos, limitando o estabelecimento de árvores em áreas de campo, e parecem ser essenciais para a existência dos campos num clima úmido. Mudanças na intensidade ou freqüência do fogo ou do pastejo podem permitir o adensamento de espécies lenhosas em comunidades campestres. Todavia, os processos envolvidos são influenciados pelas condições locais e tipo de espécies pioneiras. Esta tese aborda padrões espaciais de transição da floresta ao campo, na ausência de pastejo, porém sob diferentes condições locais relacionadas à exposição do relevo (norte, sul, sudoeste) e ao fogo. Os dados abrangem arbustos e árvores pela composição de espécies e tipos funcionais de plantas (plant functional types, PFTs), e variáveis do solo em bordas de floresta-campo, sob diferentes períodos de tempo transcorrido desde a última queimada nas áreas de campo. Dados sobre composição, diversidade, categoria de plantas (que rebrotam e não rebrotam) e PFTs foram analisados de acordo com o período de tempo sem fogo em dois levantamentos realizados em anos consecutivos. O objetivo desta última análise foi descrever como reagem as plantas lenhosas em áreas de campo freqüentemente queimadas, num contexto de ecótonos de floresta-campo O estudo foi conduzido no Morro Santana (30°03’ S, 51°07’ W, altitude máxima: 311m), Porto Alegre, RS, Brasil. A vegetação da área apresenta mosaicos de floresta-campo. Os dados foram coletados em seis pares de transecção (4,5 x 58,5 m cada) perpendiculares à borda florestacampo. Cada transecção era composta por seis quadros grandes (LP= 20,25 m²) consecutivos na floresta e sete no campo. Em cada um dos LP, foram instalados três quadros pequenos (SPs) consecutivos, a fim de medir todos os indivíduos iguais ou maiores que 10 cm de altura. Nos LPs, o critério de inclusão foi a altura mínima de 80 cm. Uma queimada experimental foi realizada nos quadros de campo, considerando sempre uma transecção de cada pa r, antes da coleta dos dados. Ao todo foram amostradas 124 espécies lenhosas de 42 famílias. Destas, 90 espécies foram amostradas nos quadros da floresta e 76 nos quadros do campo, das quais 44 foram comuns a ambas as formações (espécies típicas de borda ou pioneiras). No interior da floresta, plântulas e indivíduos jovens de árvores foram significativamente mais abundantes nos quadros próximos da borda, onde os índices de diversidade, eqüidade e riqueza também foram maiores. Os gradientes da floresta ao campo foram analisados como trajetórias de composição em um espaço de ordenação multidimensional. Diferenças nos padrões espaciais reveladas entre locais com exposição distinta foram evidenciadas. Bordas abruptas ocorreram principalmente nas transecções de exposição sul e sudoeste, enquanto transições mais graduais foram observadas no norte As condições do solo também diferiram em relação às exposições predominantes, porém os principais parâmetros variaram conforme a distância espacial do limite da floresta. Assim, apesar dos padrões de vegetação diferirem conforme a exposição predominante, o fator mais importante na explicação dos padrões foi a distância do limite florestal, não somente per se, mas por todos parâmetros correlacionados que variam no gradiente. Em relação aos dois levantamentos realizados em áreas de campo, 31 espécies arbustivas de campo e 45 florestais foram analisadas, das quais 65,8% tinham capacidade de rebrotar. A composição de espécies diferiu com o tempo após o fogo. Densidade, riqueza e diversidade foram menores nos quadros recentemente queimados, principalmente nos sítios com exposição sul. Considerando arbustos de campo, a riqueza e a densidade foram maiores nos quadros não queimados há um e dois anos do que naqueles há mais de três anos. Comparando arbustos com e sem capacidade de rebrotar, os que rebrotam tiveram sempre maior densidade Árvores com capacidade de rebrote predominaram nas áreas com exposição norte, apresentando densidades similares, independente do tempo após o fogo. Porém, árvores sem capacidade de rebrote apresentaram maior densidade nos quadros não queimados. Diferenças na dinâmica de recrutamento de arbustos ou árvores uni- ou multi-caulinares também foram detectadas. Nas análises com base em PFTs, foram identific ados nove PFTs florestais com máxima associação com a variável distância da borda. A habilidade de rebrote foi o principal atributo de plantas florestais que colonizam áreas de campo. A diversidade de PFTs foi maior nos quadros próximos da borda que no interior da floresta. Quatro PFTs foram identificados, entre espécies lenhosas florestais e campestres, com máxima associação com o tempo decorrido após o fogo nas áreas de campo. Alguns dos principais aspectos descritos no parágrafo anterior foram corroborados. Arbustos altos com base uni-caulinar predominaram nas áreas não queimadas (3-4 anos), enquanto arbustos baixos com base multi-caulinar predominaram nas áreas recentemente queimadas (3 meses a 1 ano). PFTs florestais ocorreram nos quadros da borda ou como adultos estabelecidos no campo, não sendo afetados pelo fogo. Com base nos principais resultados, as seguintes conclusões são possíveis: A alta proporção de espécies com capacidade de rebrote nas áreas de campo e a alta taxa de recrutamento das demais espécies caracterizam comunidades com distúrbios freqüentes e espécies bem adaptadas. O regime de fogo com intervalos de dois a três anos não impede o adensamento de arbustos do campo, porém retarda o avanço de espécies arbóreas florestais, exceto em sítios bastante próximos a borda ou em “ilhas” protegidas do fogo intenso PFTs lenhosos de áreas de campo, associados com os intervalos de fogo, sugerem que atributos facilmente mensurados são suficientes para avaliar a dinâmica pós-fogo em comunidades de espécies lenhosas. PFTs florestais nas áreas de campo se restringem àqueles com capacidade de rebrote, para sobreviver às queimadas recorrentes. Com base nas estratégias das plantas, nos PFTs e no padrão espacial das espécies nas bordas de floresta-campo sob influência freqüente do fogo, nós reforçamos a presença de dois mecanismos principais como formas de expansão florestal. Um deles refere-se ao adensamento gradual de espécies arbóreas junto à borda, em áreas cujo intervalo de tempo sem fogo é maior. Outro está relacionado ao recrutamento de árvores pioneiras isoladas no campo, freqüentemente próximo de matacões, onde menor biomassa de gramíneas conduz a menor intensidade do fogo. O fogo é portanto um fator de prevenção da expansão florestal sobre as áreas adjacentes de campo nas condições atuais de clima úmido. O presente regime de distúrbio permite a manutenção de uma elevada biodiversidade na paisagem dos morros de Porto Alegre pela co-ocorrência de ecossistemas ricos em espécies distintas (campos e florestas); a supressão de queimadas pode alterar o mosaico de tipos de hábitat, aumentando a proporção de áreas florestais.

Modelos de simulação espacial de efeitos de pastejo em vegetação campestre

O principal objetivo da tese foi desenvolver um modelo matemático computacional espacialmente explícito, de autômatos celulares (CA), capaz de simular a dinâmica de vegetação campestre sob pastejo, descrita por tipos funcionais de plantas (PFTs), ao invés de espécies. Com dados obtidos a campo, utilizou-se um método recursivo de identificação politética de PFTs a partir de atributos morfológicos das plantas, de forma a expressar máxima correlação com diversidade de espécies. A alternância entre condições experimentais de exposição e exclusão de pastejo permitiu produzir variação em padrões espaciais e temporais da composição da vegetação descrita por esses PFTs. A seguir buscou-se modelar a dinâmica da vegetação. Assumiu-se que a dinâmica da vegetação, embora complexa, pudesse ser simulada a partir de mecanismos relativamente simples incorporados a um modelo CA formado por uma grade de células (comunidades). Cada célula tem uma dada composição de PFTs a qual se altera a cada passo no tempo conforme a composição da própria célula e da vizinhança e matrizes de transição determinadas empiricamente com os dados experimentais. A dinâmica simulada da composição de comunidades excluídas do pastejo mostrou determinismo no sentido de um PFT único, característico daquelas comunidades. A mesma tendência não foi observada nas simulações de comunidades sempre pastejadas. Os resultados indicam uma razoável concordância entre a dinâmica simulada e real, para as comunidades excluídas; e uma discordância para as comunidades sempre pastejadas. Sugere-se que diferenças no arranjo espacial inicial das comunidades motivam falhas do modelo sob pastejo. O Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA), na França, vem desenvolvendo um modelo simulador multi-agente espacializado como objetivo de representar realisticamente o manejo da vegetação campestre natural sob diferentes regimes de pastejo. Ele foi concebido como uma ferramenta de pesquisa para explorar o comportamento animal em pastagens heterogêneas Nesse modelo implícito e determinístico, uma definição funcional de três diferentes comunidades vegetais foi introduzida objetivando simular a dinâmica de pastagens multi-espécies. Isto foi feito pela intercambio de parâmetros do modelo com atributos funcionais da comunidade. Do ponto vista conceptual o modelo apresentou boa resposta e parece adequado para simular a dinâmica de uma vegetação campestre por atributos funcionais. O modelo apresentou um bom ajuste aos dados experimentais para alto nível de utilização, mas não tão bom para médio e baixo nível de pastejo, ou seja, comunidades vegetais mais heterogêneas. Reforça-se a idéia de que mais modelos que levem em conta a estrutura horizontal da vegetação são necessários.

An intercomparison of bio-optical techniques for detecting dominant phytoplankton size class from satellite remote sensing

Satellite remote sensing of ocean colour is the only method currently available for synoptically measuring wide-area properties of ocean ecosystems, such as phytoplankton chlorophyll biomass. Recently, a variety of bio-optical and ecological methods have been established that use satellite data to identify and differentiate between either phytoplankton functional types (PFTs) or phytoplankton size classes (PSCs). In this study, several of these techniques were evaluated against in situ observations to determine their ability to detect dominant phytoplankton size classes (micro-, nano- and picoplankton). The techniques are applied to a 10-year ocean-colour data series from the SeaWiFS satellite sensor and compared with in situ data (6504 samples) from a variety of locations in the global ocean. Results show that spectral-response, ecological and abundance-based approaches can all perform with similar accuracy. Detection of microplankton and picoplankton were generally better than detection of nanoplankton. Abundance-based approaches were shown to provide better spatial retrieval of PSCs. Individual model performance varied according to PSC, input satellite data sources and in situ validation data types. Uncertainty in the comparison procedure and data sources was considered. Improved availability of in situ observations would aid ongoing research in this field. (C) 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Exercise Performance and Dynamic Hyperinflation in Lymphangioleiomyomatosis

Rationale: Lymphangioleiomyomatosis (LAM) is characterized by exercise performance impairment. Although airflow limitation is common, no previous studies have evaluated the prevalence and impact of dynamic hyperinflation (DH) in LAM. Objectives: To investigate the dynamic responses during maximal exercise and the prevalence, predictors, and repercussions of DH in LAM. Methods: Forty-two patients with LAM performed symptom-limited incremental cycle exercise and pulmonary functions tests (PFTs) and were compared with 10 age-matched healthy women. Dyspnea intensity, inspiratory capacity, oxygen saturation, and cardiac, metabolic, and respiratory variables were assessed during exercise. Patients with LAM also performed a 6-minute walk test (6MWT). Measurements and Main Results: Patients with LAM had higher baseline dyspnea, poorer quality of life, obstructive pattern, air trapping, and reduced diffusing capacity of carbon monoxide in PFTs. Although they had the same level of regular physical activity, their maximal exercise performance was reduced and was associated with ventilatory limitation, greater desaturation, and dyspnea. The prevalence of DH was high in LAM (55%), even in patients with mild spirometric abnormalities, and was correlated with airflow obstruction, air trapping, and diffusing capacity of carbon monoxide. Compared with the non-DH subgroup, the patients who developed DH had a ventilatory limitation contributing to exercise cessation on cycling and higher desaturation and dyspnea intensity during the 6MWT. Conclusions: Ventilatory limitation and gas exchange impairment are important causes of exercise limitation in LAM. DH is frequent in LAM, even in patients with mild spirometric abnormalities. DH was associated with the severity of disease, higher dyspnea, and lower oxygen saturation. In the 6MWT, desaturation and dyspnea were greater in patients with DH.

Holocene land-cover reconstructions for studies on land cover-climate feedbacks

The major objectives of this paper are: (1) to review the pros and cons of the scenarios of past anthropogenic land cover change (ALCC) developed during the last ten years, (2) to discuss issues related to pollen-based reconstruction of the past land-cover and introduce a new method, REVEALS (Regional Estimates of VEgetation Abundance from Large Sites), to infer long-term records of past land-cover from pollen data, (3) to present a new project (LANDCLIM: LAND cover – CLIMate interactions in NW Europe during the Holocene) currently underway, and show preliminary results of REVEALS reconstructions of the regional land-cover in the Czech Republic for five selected time windows of the Holocene, and (4) to discuss the implications and future directions in climate and vegetation/land-cover modeling, and in the assessment of the effects of human-induced changes in land-cover on the regional climate through altered feedbacks. The existing ALCC scenarios show large discrepancies between them, and few cover time periods older than AD 800. When these scenarios are used to assess the impact of human land-use on climate, contrasting results are obtained. It emphasizes the need for methods such as the REVEALS model-based land-cover reconstructions. They might help to fine-tune descriptions of past land-cover and lead to a better understanding of how long-term changes in ALCC might have influenced climate. The REVEALS model is demonstrated to provide better estimates of the regional vegetation/land-cover changes than the traditional use of pollen percentages. This will achieve a robust assessment of land cover at regional- to continental-spatial scale throughout the Holocene. We present maps of REVEALS estimates for the percentage cover of 10 plant functional types (PFTs) at 200 BP and 6000 BP, and of the two open-land PFTs "grassland" and "agricultural land" at five time-windows from 6000 BP to recent time. The LANDCLIM results are expected to provide crucial data to reassess ALCC estimates for a better understanding of the land suface-atmosphere interactions.

Methane emissions from floodplains in the Amazon Basin: challenges in developing a process-based model for global applications

Tropical wetlands are estimated to represent about 50% of the natural wetland methane (CH4) emissions and explain a large fraction of the observed CH4 variability on timescales ranging from glacial–interglacial cycles to the currently observed year-to-year variability. Despite their importance, however, tropical wetlands are poorly represented in global models aiming to predict global CH4 emissions. This publication documents a first step in the development of a process-based model of CH4 emissions from tropical floodplains for global applications. For this purpose, the LPX-Bern Dynamic Global Vegetation Model (LPX hereafter) was slightly modified to represent floodplain hydrology, vegetation and associated CH4 emissions. The extent of tropical floodplains was prescribed using output from the spatially explicit hydrology model PCR-GLOBWB. We introduced new plant functional types (PFTs) that explicitly represent floodplain vegetation. The PFT parameterizations were evaluated against available remote-sensing data sets (GLC2000 land cover and MODIS Net Primary Productivity). Simulated CH4 flux densities were evaluated against field observations and regional flux inventories. Simulated CH4 emissions at Amazon Basin scale were compared to model simulations performed in the WETCHIMP intercomparison project. We found that LPX reproduces the average magnitude of observed net CH4 flux densities for the Amazon Basin. However, the model does not reproduce the variability between sites or between years within a site. Unfortunately, site information is too limited to attest or disprove some model features. At the Amazon Basin scale, our results underline the large uncertainty in the magnitude of wetland CH4 emissions. Sensitivity analyses gave insights into the main drivers of floodplain CH4 emission and their associated uncertainties. In particular, uncertainties in floodplain extent (i.e., difference between GLC2000 and PCR-GLOBWB output) modulate the simulated emissions by a factor of about 2. Our best estimates, using PCR-GLOBWB in combination with GLC2000, lead to simulated Amazon-integrated emissions of 44.4 ± 4.8 Tg yr−1. Additionally, the LPX emissions are highly sensitive to vegetation distribution. Two simulations with the same mean PFT cover, but different spatial distributions of grasslands within the basin, modulated emissions by about 20%. Correcting the LPX-simulated NPP using MODIS reduces the Amazon emissions by 11.3%. Finally, due to an intrinsic limitation of LPX to account for seasonality in floodplain extent, the model failed to reproduce the full dynamics in CH4 emissions but we proposed solutions to this issue. The interannual variability (IAV) of the emissions increases by 90% if the IAV in floodplain extent is accounted for, but still remains lower than in most of the WETCHIMP models. While our model includes more mechanisms specific to tropical floodplains, we were unable to reduce the uncertainty in the magnitude of wetland CH4 emissions of the Amazon Basin. Our results helped identify and prioritize directions towards more accurate estimates of tropical CH4 emissions, and they stress the need for more research to constrain floodplain CH4 emissions and their temporal variability, even before including other fundamental mechanisms such as floating macrophytes or lateral water fluxes.

Grazing response patterns indicate isolation of semi-natural European grasslands

Identifying drivers of species diversity is a major challenge in understanding and predicting the dynamics of species-rich semi-natural grasslands. In particular in temperate grasslands changes in land use and its consequences, i.e. increasing fragmentation, the on-going loss of habitat and the declining importance of regional processes such as seed dispersal by livestock, are considered key drivers of the diversity loss witnessed within the last decades. It is a largely unresolved question to what degree current temperate grassland communities already reflect a decline of regional processes such as longer distance seed dispersal. Answering this question is challenging since it requires both a mechanistic approach to community dynamics and a sufficient data basis that allows identifying general patterns. Here, we present results of a local individual- and trait-based community model that was initialized with plant functional types (PFTs) derived from an extensive empirical data set of species-rich grasslands within the `Biodiversity Exploratories' in Germany. Driving model processes included above- and belowground competition, dynamic resource allocation to shoots and roots, clonal growth, grazing, and local seed dispersal. To test for the impact of regional processes we also simulated seed input from a regional species pool. Model output, with and without regional seed input, was compared with empirical community response patterns along a grazing gradient. Simulated response patterns of changes in PFT richness, Shannon diversity, and biomass production matched observed grazing response patterns surprisingly well if only local processes were considered. Already low levels of additional regional seed input led to stronger deviations from empirical community pattern. While these findings cannot rule out that regional processes other than those considered in the modeling study potentially play a role in shaping the local grassland communities, our comparison indicates that European grasslands are largely isolated, i.e. local mechanisms explain observed community patterns to a large extent.

Global distributions of diatoms abundance, biovolume and biomass - Gridded data product (NetCDF) - Contribution to the MAREDAT World Ocean Atlas of Plankton Functional Types

This study is a first effort to compile the largest possible body of data available from different plankton databases as well as from individual published or unpublished datasets regarding diatom distribution in the world ocean. The data obtained originate from time series studies as well as spatial studies. This effort is supported by the Marine Ecosystem Data (MAREDAT) project, which aims at building consistent data sets for the main PFTs (Plankton Functional Types) in order to help validate biogeochemical ocean models by using converted C biomass from abundance data. Diatom abundance data were obtained from various research programs with the associated geolocation and date of collection, as well as with a taxonomic information ranging from group down to species. Minimum, maximum and average cell size information were mined from the literature for each taxonomic entry, and all abundance data were subsequently converted to biovolume and C biomass using the same methodology.

Initial vegetation, and spore density, diversity and evenness of different arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi morphotaxa 29,36 and 39 months after experimental vegetation removal, central Argentina

1. Dominant plant functional types (PFTs) are expected to be primary determinants of communities of other above- and below-ground organisms. Here, we report the effects of the experimental removal of different PFTs on arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) communities in a shrubland ecosystem in central Argentina. 2. On the basis of the biomass-ratio hypothesis and plant resource use strategy theory, we expected the effect of removal of PFTs on AMF colonization and spores to be proportional to the biomass removed and to be stronger when more conservative PFTs were removed. The treatments applied were: undisturbed control (no plant removed), disturbed control (mechanical disturbance), no shrub (removal of deciduous shrubs), no perennial forb (removal of perennial forbs), no graminoid (removal of graminoids) and no annual forb (removal of annual forbs). AMF colonization was assessed after 5,17 and 29 months. Total density of AMF spores, richness and evenness of morpho-taxa, and AMF functional groups were quantified after 5,17,29,36 and 39 months. 3. Five months after the initial removal we found a significant reduction in total AMF colonization in all plots subjected to PFT removals and in the disturbed control plots, as compared with the undisturbed controls. This effect disappeared afterwards and no subsequent effect on total colonization and colonization by arbuscules was observed. In contrast, a significant increase in colonization by vesicles was observed in months 17 and 29, mainly in no graminoid plots. In general, treatments did not significantly affect AMF spores in the soil. On the other hand, no annual forb promoted transient (12-18 months) higher ammonia availability, and no shrub promoted lower nitrate availability in the longer term (24-28 months). 4. Synthesis. Our experiment, the first to investigate the effects of the removal of different PFTs on AMF communities in natural ecosystems, indicates that AMF communities are resilient to changes in the soil and in the functional composition of vegetation. Furthermore, it does not provide consistent evidence in support of the biomass-ratio hypothesis or differential trait-based direct or indirect effects of different PFTs on AMF in this particular system.

Plant Functional Type (PFT) map over Siberia derived from GlobCover 2005 dataset, link to dataset in NetCDF format

High-latitude ecosystems play an important role in the global carbon cycle and in regulating the climate system and are presently undergoing rapid environmental change. Accurate land cover data sets are required to both document these changes as well as to provide land-surface information for benchmarking and initializing Earth system models. Earth system models also require specific land cover classification systems based on plant functional types (PFTs), rather than species or ecosystems, and so post-processing of existing land cover data is often required. This study compares over Siberia, multiple land cover data sets against one another and with auxiliary data to identify key uncertainties that contribute to variability in PFT classifications that would introduce errors in Earth system modeling. Land cover classification systems from GLC 2000, GlobCover 2005 and 2009, and MODIS collections 5 and 5.1 are first aggregated to a common legend, and then compared to high-resolution land cover classification systems, vegetation continuous fields (MODIS VCFs) and satellite-derived tree heights (to discriminate against sparse, shrub, and forest vegetation). The GlobCover data set, with a lower threshold for tree cover and taller tree heights and a better spatial resolution, tends to have better distributions of tree cover compared to high-resolution data. It has therefore been chosen to build new PFT maps for the ORCHIDEE land surface model at 1 km scale. Compared to the original PFT data set, the new PFT maps based on GlobCover 2005 and an updated cross-walking approach mainly differ in the characterization of forests and degree of tree cover. The partition of grasslands and bare soils now appears more realistic compared with ground truth data. This new vegetation map provides a framework for further development of new PFTs in the ORCHIDEE model like shrubs, lichens and mosses, to represent the water and carbon cycles in northern latitudes better. Updated land cover data sets are critical for improving and maintaining the relevance of Earth system models for assessing climate and human impacts on biogeochemistry and biophysics.

Contiunous surface water uncorrected and quench-corrected active fluorescence and derived chlorophyll a concentration using calibration by HPLC pigments during POLARSTERN cruise ANT-XXV/1

The relationship between phytoplankton assemblages and the associated optical properties of the water body is important for the further development of algorithms for large-scale remote sensing of phytoplankton biomass and the identification of phytoplankton functional types (PFTs), which are often representative for different biogeochemical export scenarios. Optical in-situ measurements aid in the identification of phytoplankton groups with differing pigment compositions and are widely used to validate remote sensing data. In this study we present results from an interdisciplinary cruise aboard the RV Polarstern along a north-to-south transect in the eastern Atlantic Ocean in November 2008. Phytoplankton community composition was identified using a broad set of in-situ measurements. Water samples from the surface and the depth of maximum chlorophyll concentration were analyzed by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), flow cytometry, spectrophotometry and microscopy. Simultaneously, the above- and underwater light field was measured by a set of high spectral resolution (hyperspectral) radiometers. An unsupervised cluster algorithm applied to the measured parameters allowed us to define bio-optical provinces, which we compared to ecological provinces proposed elsewhere in the literature. As could be expected, picophytoplankton was responsible for most of the variability of PFTs in the eastern Atlantic Ocean. Our bio-optical clusters agreed well with established provinces and thus can be used to classify areas of similar biogeography. This method has the potential to become an automated approach where satellite data could be used to identify shifting boundaries of established ecological provinces or to track exceptions from the rule to improve our understanding of the biogeochemical cycles in the ocean.

(Table 3) Leaf area and leaf nitrogen for deciduous, evergreen, forb and graminoid species at Barrow, Svalbard and Zackenberg

Arctic vegetation is characterized by high spatial variability in plant functional type (PFT) composition and gross primary productivity (P). Despite this variability, the two main drivers of P in sub-Arctic tundra are leaf area index (LT) and total foliar nitrogen (NT). LT and NT have been shown to be tightly coupled across PFTs in sub-Arctic tundra vegetation, which simplifies up-scaling by allowing quantification of the main drivers of P from remotely sensed LT. Our objective was to test the LT-NT relationship across multiple Arctic latitudes and to assess LT as a predictor of P for the pan-Arctic. Including PFT-specific parameters in models of LT-NT coupling provided only incremental improvements in model fit, but significant improvements were gained from including site-specific parameters. The degree of curvature in the LT-NT relationship, controlled by a fitted canopy nitrogen extinction co-efficient, was negatively related to average levels of diffuse radiation at a site. This is consistent with theoretical predictions of more uniform vertical canopy N distributions under diffuse light conditions. Higher latitude sites had higher average leaf N content by mass (NM), and we show for the first time that LT-NT coupling is achieved across latitudes via canopy-scale trade-offs between NM and leaf mass per unit leaf area (LM). Site-specific parameters provided small but significant improvements in models of P based on LT and moss cover. Our results suggest that differences in LT-NT coupling between sites could be used to improve pan-Arctic models of P and we provide unique evidence that prevailing radiation conditions can significantly affect N allocation over regional scales.

Tropical climate and vegetation simulations during the Heinrich event 1 using an Earth System Model of Intermediate Complexity (EMIC) - the University of Victoria Earth System-Climate Model (UVic ESCM)

Abrupt climate changes from 18 to 15 thousand years before present (kyr BP) associated with Heinrich Event 1 (HE1) had a strong impact on vegetation patterns not only at high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, but also in the tropical regions around the Atlantic Ocean. To gain a better understanding of the linkage between high and low latitudes, we used the University of Victoria (UVic) Earth System-Climate Model (ESCM) with dynamical vegetation and land surface components to simulate four scenarios of climate-vegetation interaction: the pre-industrial era, the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), and a Heinrich-like event with two different climate backgrounds (interglacial and glacial). We calculated mega-biomes from the plant-functional types (PFTs) generated by the model to allow for a direct comparison between model results and palynological vegetation reconstructions. Our calculated mega-biomes for the pre-industrial period and the LGM corresponded well with biome reconstructions of the modern and LGM time slices, respectively, except that our pre-industrial simulation predicted the dominance of grassland in southern Europe and our LGM simulation resulted in more forest cover in tropical and sub-tropical South America. The HE1-like simulation with a glacial climate background produced sea-surface temperature patterns and enhanced inter-hemispheric thermal gradients in accordance with the "bipolar seesaw" hypothesis. We found that the cooling of the Northern Hemisphere caused a southward shift of those PFTs that are indicative of an increased desertification and a retreat of broadleaf forests in West Africa and northern South America. The mega-biomes from our HE1 simulation agreed well with paleovegetation data from tropical Africa and northern South America. Thus, according to our model-data comparison, the reconstructed vegetation changes for the tropical regions around the Atlantic Ocean were physically consistent with the remote effects of a Heinrich event under a glacial climate background.