沙地小叶杨和柠条细根分布与土壤水分消耗的关系

以生长在陕北水蚀风蚀交错带沙地上的人工小叶杨(Populus simonii)和柠条(Caragana korshinkii)为研究对象,采用剖面法调查2个树种的细根分布特征,通过2年土壤水分定位观测研究,初步分析沙地小叶杨和柠条细根分布与土壤水分消耗的关系。结果表明:1)沙地小叶杨和柠条随土层深度增加,细根表面积密度逐渐减小,0~100cm土层分别集中了整个剖面细根总量的63%和95%;2)小叶杨和柠条林地剖面土壤水分与细根垂直分布密切相关,小叶杨和柠条林地土壤水分特征类似,可分为3个层次:0~50 cm土层为速变层,50~200 cm土层为缓变层,200cm以下土层为缓慢衰减层;3)2年观测期内,小叶杨和柠条林地总蒸散量接近,与同期降水量基本持平,而裸沙地土壤储水量增加;4)小叶杨和柠条细根趋于浅表化的分布特征是对沙地浅层土壤经常获得雨水补给适应的结果。研究结果可为水蚀风蚀交错带沙区防护林建设提供理论依据。

辽西北沙地土壤水分动态及预测

水分是沙漠化地区植被恢复和沙地治理的主要制约因素，也是沙漠化地区生态环境的重要影响因子，深入研究辽西北沙地土壤水分动态变化规律，掌握沙地水分动态变化趋势，建立适宜的土壤水分预测模型，对沙地有限水资源的合理调控和高效利用以及沙地生态系统的恢复与重建具有重要意义。 本文以辽西北沙地流动沙丘、固定沙丘和丘间洼地为对象，研究了不同沙地类型的土壤水分的时空动态变化，提出了不同沙地类型的主要治理与利用措施，分析了沙地水分的主要影响因素，建立了辽西北沙地流动沙丘0-60cm的土壤水分BP神经网络预测模型，针对BP网络模型实际应用中存在收敛速度慢、易陷入局部极小值等不足，将遗传算法优化BP网络引进土壤水分预测领域，提高了预测精度。研究结果表明，辽西北沙地土壤水分的年内分布与降雨分布同型，可分为春季失水阶段、夏季补给阶段和秋季弱失水阶段；在深度上，可分为干沙层（一般为0~20cm）、水分变化活跃层（20~60cm）和水分稳定层（60cm以下）。分析结果表明，流动沙丘的含水量高于固定沙丘和丘间洼地，表明随着固沙植被的建立和演变，沙地土壤水分呈现下降趋势，土壤水分不足成了植被生长的主要阻碍。因此，要通过采取配置耗水性弱、耐旱性强的植物群落等治理措施，努力维持沙地生态系统的水分平衡。同时，在分析流动沙丘土壤水分动态变化特征及主要影响因素的基础上，建立了流动沙丘0-60cm土壤水分预测BP模型和遗传BP模型，其绝对误差分别为0.35和0.18，相对误差分别为11.53%和5.65%，两模型用于土壤水分预测是可行的，而且遗传BP模型精度明显高于BP模型。

科尔沁沙地东南部固沙林土壤磷素研究

土壤养分的持续供应是生态系统可持续性发展的基础，尤其在土壤贫瘠地区。土壤磷素被认为是干旱区生态系统的潜在限制性养分因子，但目前半干旱区土壤磷素的深入研究很少。针对半干旱区生态系统恢复方式、人工防护林可持续性经营等关键问题，本论文旨在弄清处于半干旱区的科尔沁沙地东南部沙地人工林土壤磷素转化的主导过程及影响因素，并从土壤磷素可持续供应的角度来评价研究区生态系统的可持续发展。 以处于无人为干扰下、立地条件基本一致的科尔沁沙地东南部的有代表性的生态系统为研究对象，包括原生植被榆树（Ulmus macrocarpa）疏林草地，退化草地，油松（Pinus tubulaeformis Carr.）人工林、樟子松（Pinus svlvestris var. mongolica）人工林和小叶杨（Populus simonii）人工林。系统全面的研究了土壤磷素状况及其季节变化，并深入探讨了樟子松人工林土壤磷素转化及其影响因素（林龄、密度、土壤冻融）。主要结论如下： （1）研究区风沙土表层0~20 cm全磷（<0.2 g kg-1）和活性无机磷含量（<3 mg kg-1）都极低，有机磷占全磷的50%以上，是土壤磷的主要组分。凋落物分解、有机磷矿化和微生物周转是有效磷的主要来源，与这些过程有关的土壤的生物过程控制着土壤磷素转化。Ca-P（钙结合的磷酸盐）的溶解也是速效磷的次要来源，而Al-P（铝结合的磷酸盐）和Fe-P（铁结合的磷酸盐）是活性无机磷库。凋落物分解对有效磷供应起首要作用（尤其在人工林中），凋落物分解的年磷归还量是10 cm层矿质土壤有效磷供应量的1.7~3.4倍。 （2）土壤含水量是影响土壤磷素供应的关键环境因子，而冻融作用对土壤微生物磷和活性无机磷含量无显著影响。 （3）与各人工林相比，榆树疏林草地具有高效的养分循环和较强的土壤磷素保持能力，其退化大幅度降低了土壤持水能力和肥力。而在退化草地上营造以针叶树种为主的人工纯林及针阔混交林进一步降低了土壤全磷含量。从土壤磷素可持续供应的角度来看，在干旱贫瘠地区不宜营造高密度的人工林。研究区的植被恢复，应该选取磷素利用效率高，而养分周转较快的植被类型。这样，不需要集中的人为管理，就能使生态系统达到一种自我维持的良性循环状态。 （4）樟子松的生长受到土壤磷素供应的限制，当年生叶片无机磷浓度比全磷浓度能更准确、直接地反映土壤供磷水平的变化。为满足林分的需求，樟子松的根系活动能够增强根际微生物和磷酸酶活性以促进有机磷的矿化，同时能降低根际土壤pH值以促进Ca-P的溶解。随着林分的发展，活性无机磷含量无显著变化，但土壤磷库（主要是总有机磷）逐渐耗竭，有机磷的矿化潜力也逐渐降低。这表明，随着林分发展，磷素对樟子松人工林的限制性逐渐增强。 （5）为保证已有人工林的可持续发展，必须通过间伐、保护地被物、施肥来调节养分需求与归还之间的平衡，维持地力，保证土壤养分的持续供应。其中保护林下凋落物尤为重要。为防止地力衰退，该地区樟子松林的最大密度（以每公顷胸高断面积为密度指标）应保持在24.1~26.6 m2 ha-1。

科尔沁沙地小叶锦鸡儿群落固沙作用的研究

建立人工植被是科尔沁沙地退化生态系统恢复与重建的基础，也是土地沙漠化防治的有效措施。本文以科尔沁沙地典型固沙灌木植物种——小叶锦鸡儿(Caragana microphylla)为研究对象，采用空间序列代替时间序列的方法，比较系统地研究了小叶锦鸡儿生长发育特征、更新途径，以及小叶锦鸡儿群落的固沙作用，并从水量平衡角度探讨了小叶锦鸡儿固沙植被的土壤水分状况和蒸散量变化。 研究结果表明：(1) 在生长季，小叶锦鸡儿的生物量在7月份达到最大值，且其生长发育速度与降水量相关；人工平茬和自然萌孽是小叶锦鸡儿主要且有效的更新途径。(2) 小叶锦鸡儿群落对近地表风速具有显著的阻滞作用，群落内总输沙量及各层输沙量均明显低于流动沙丘，小气候得到明显改善。(3) 6年生、11年生和22年生小叶锦鸡儿群落对土壤理化性质均有明显的改善作用。土壤中微沙(0.05～0.1 mm)和粘粒(<0.05 mm)含量增加，表层(0～10 cm)土壤容重减小，孔隙度和饱和含水率增大，土壤持水能力提高；土壤有机碳、全氮、碱解氮、全磷、有效磷和有效钾含量均有不同程度增加，尤以表层增加幅度最大，并且灌丛对养分有明显的富集效应。(4) 与天然小叶锦鸡儿群落的土壤含水量相比，人工小叶锦鸡儿群落内土壤含水量较低，且呈现出随植被生长发育年限增加而不断减少的趋势；在生长季，人工植被区绝大部分的降雨量都通过蒸散作用丧失，各试验样地蒸散量呈现单峰型曲线模式。

科尔沁沙地东南部地区主要植物叶片性状研究

以科尔沁沙地44种主要植物为研究对象，分别测定了叶片厚度、面积、体积、比叶面积、叶干物质含量、叶氮含量（单位重量的和单位面积的）、叶磷含量（单位重量的和单位面积的）、叶钾含量（单位重量的和单位面积的）、单位重量叶氮再吸收效率、单位重量叶磷再吸收效率和单位重量叶钾在吸收效率16种叶性因子，分别从叶片光合作用，水分生理及养分再吸收方面探讨不同植物对生境的适应能力，为当地生态环境恢复中植物选择与配置提供理论依据。结果表明： 不同生长型植物在叶片形态性状和叶片养分再吸收效率上没有显著差异，这说明不同生长型植物在光合作用、养分保存能力上对环境的适应机制存在较大重叠。不同生长型植物在叶片功能性状上差异显著，乔木主要是通过减弱光合作用，减缓生长速度，延长养分从衰老叶片的转移时间来适应贫瘠生境；草本植物主要是通过增强光合作用，加速叶片养分和干物质周转，提高对衰老叶片养分的再吸收速度来适应生境；灌木的生存策略介于乔木和草本之间。 豆科植物对土壤氮贫瘠的适应能力和对水分的利用效率显著高于非豆科植物；而非豆科植物对氮的保持能力和对干旱胁迫的适应能力显著强于豆科植物；禾本科草本植物的叶氮含量显著高于非禾本科草本植物；非禾本科草本植物对钾再吸收效率显著大于禾本科草本植物，说明非禾本科草本植物表现出对钾营养高度的保存能力，对钾胁迫的适应力强于禾本科草本植物。以上结果表明不同功能型植物具有不同的适应对策。 对4种典型生境中主要植物的叶片性状比较发现，除农田外，其它3种生境中植物叶片性状均未出现显著的差异。而农田植物仅在叶片形态性状上显著高于其它生境，造成这种现象的原因：一方面可能是相对其它叶片性状来说，植物叶片形态易受生境要素的影响，另一方面可能是由于该生境中物种种类较少。但从整体来看，土壤特征以及植被差异对叶片性状的影响不大。 植物对叶氮、磷和钾的再吸收效率之间呈显著的正相关，这与某些学者的研究结论是相矛盾的，以后可在更广泛的范围内进行验证。另外，植物对氮和磷的再吸收效率显著大于对钾的再吸收效率。这一方面说明了植物对氮、磷和钾的再吸收效率机制不同，另一方面可能是由于研究区土壤氮和磷营养缺乏，植物为了满足自身养分需求而采取的一种生存对策。根据植物对氮、磷和钾再吸收效率平均值大小顺序，可推测3种养分对植物生长的限制作用顺序是氮＞磷＞钾，氮可能是影响科尔沁沙地植物生长最强的营养元素。

科尔沁沙地樟子松人工林土壤呼吸对水分变化的响应

土壤是陆地生态系统最大的碳库，其碳储量是大气碳储量的两倍。土壤呼吸是土壤碳库的最大输出途径。在干旱半干旱区降雨格局以及土壤水分条件的变化对土壤呼吸的影响具有重要意义。本研究以半干旱区科尔沁沙地东部樟子松人工林为研究对象，通过室内培养模拟研究、野外降雨量控制研究和降雨频率模拟及干湿交替模拟试验，研究了科尔沁沙地半干旱人工林生态系统土壤呼吸对水分变化的响应趋势，探讨了降雨格局变化对土壤呼吸的影响，结果表明： （1）土壤呼吸速率随温度和土壤含水量的升高分别呈指数和线性增长；温度和土壤含水量分别影响着土壤呼吸对土壤水分和温度的敏感性； （2）降雨量变化影响土壤呼吸日动态变化，降水量增加30%，土壤24h释放CO2量升高了35.9%，当降水量减少30%时，土壤24h释放的CO2量降低了59.6%，而且干旱降低了土壤呼吸日动态变化的幅度； （3）降雨量变化对土壤呼吸月季动态具有一定影响。降雨量增加30%，8~10月土壤总呼吸CO2释放速率升高40.7%~166.4%，土壤异养呼吸CO2释放速率升高40.5%~194.3%；降雨量降低30%使降雨较频繁的8月份土壤总呼吸CO2释放速率降低34.0%~70.0%，土壤异养呼吸CO2释放速率下降20.9%~ 64.0%，而在降雨较少的9~10月份降雨量的减少对土壤呼吸则没有显著影响； （4）降雨量的变化对土壤总呼吸和异养呼吸温度敏感性有一定影响。当降雨量减少30%时，土壤总呼吸的Q10值由5.4下降到2.22，土壤异养呼吸的Q10值由4.84下降到1.81； （5）用温湿度耦合作用经验模型Rt = 0.307e0.0064（W·T）来描述三个降雨处理样地土壤呼吸速率与土壤温度及土壤含水量的关系，可以解释土壤呼吸速率变异的80.2%； （6）在较高的温度条件下，降雨频率增加一倍时，土壤呼吸速率将升高约24%；当温度较低时，降雨频率对土壤呼吸速率的影响不显著； （7）土壤呼吸随着干旱程度的增加而逐渐下降，但当进行降水模拟后，土壤呼吸值迅速升高，可升高降水前的41.0% ~ 128%，而后又迅速下降，呈现明显的脉动（pulse）效应。

封育措施对科尔沁沙地植被恢复的影响

过度放牧是科尔沁地区土地沙化的主要原因之一。围栏封育可以有效的抑制牲畜对植被的破坏，促进沙地植被恢复，从而改善区域的生态环境。本文以科尔沁沙地主要固沙植被——小叶锦鸡儿群落为研究对象，采用空间序列代替时间序列的方法，对比分析了不同封育年限和自然放牧条件下小叶锦鸡儿群落的土壤种子库特征、植被群落结构及空间异质性、土壤理化性质和土壤水分动态，较系统地探讨了封育措施对沙地植被恢复的影响。 研究结果表明：(1) 封育措施促使固沙植被区土壤种子库密度显著增加，自然放牧的小叶锦鸡儿群落封育2年、6年和12年后土壤种子库密度分别提高了15.7%、482.5%和728.1%；土壤种子库的物种多样性和均匀度随着封育时间的增加而降低；封育和放牧条件下小叶锦鸡儿群落土壤种子库均为聚集分布，封育措施降低了土壤种子库的空间异质性。(2) 封育措施对沙地植被恢复具有显著的促进作用，封育6年和12年后总植株密度分别提高了108.0%和239.3%，草本植物盖度分别提高了261.6%和271.6%；封育2年后群落的物种多样性增加，封育6年后群落的物种多样性和均匀度随着封育时间的增加而降低；放牧条件下小叶锦鸡儿群落植株密度具有强烈的空间自相关性，封育后空间自相关性降低。(3) 封育措施显著改善了土壤的养分状况，放牧地封育后土壤表层(0~10cm)的有机质、全氮、碱解氮、全磷、速效磷和速效钾含量均有不同程度的增加；封育区土壤含水量在0~10cm及40~60cm深度高于放牧区，在10~40cm及60~120cm深度低于放牧区；土壤含水量随着封育时间的增加而逐渐减少，但封育措施对土壤含水量的影响并不显著。

科尔沁沙地丘间低地植物种间关联研究

丘间低地植物种间关联研究有助于阐述丘间低地植物种间替代的机制。丘间低地面积对植物种间关联关系的影响、沙丘固定对丘间低地植物种间关联关系的影响研究对沙区植被恢复和植物多样性保护具有重要意义。但是，目前还未发现相关研究报道。 作者以科尔沁沙地为研究对象，选择流动沙丘区和固定沙丘区丘间低地面积系列，通过将植物划分为沙生植物、沼泽-草甸植物和草原植物三种生态组群，运用χ2检验和AC关联系数对植物的种间关联关系进行了分析。在流动沙丘区，随丘间低地面积的增大，沙生植物之间的关联性从正关联转变为负关联。当丘间低地面积小于0.5ha时，所有沙生植物之间都呈正关联；当丘间低地面积大于2ha时，所有沙生植物都呈负关联。大部分沙生植物与沼泽-草甸植物之间呈强烈的负关联。在固定沙丘区，随丘间低地面积的增大，草原植物之间种间关联表现为关联性从正关联转变为负关联；或始终呈正关联，但关联强度逐渐减小。大部分草原植物与沼泽-草甸植物之间呈强烈的负关联。不管在流动沙丘区还是在固定沙丘区，随丘间低地面积的增大，|AC| ≤ 0.3的种对数占所有种对数的百分比增大，|AC| ≥ 0.7的种对数占所有种对数的百分比减小。当丘间低地面积相同时，固定沙丘区丘间低地中|AC| ≤ 0.3的种对数占所有种对数的百分比小于流动沙丘区，|AC|≥ 0.7的种对数占所有总对数的百分比大于流动沙丘区。 本研究表明：1）丘间低地面积增大导致种间关系松散；2）沙丘固定导致丘间低地植物种间关系更加紧密。

我国北方沙质沉积物气候代用指标对比研究

In this study we examined samples of sandy sediments along the north-south transects crossing the Taklimakan Desert, the Badain Jaran Desert and the Hunshandake Sandy Land respectively. The grain size was measured via dry sieving, and the carbonate content by means of an Eijkelkamp instrument. The analyses of grain size and carbonate contents show: (1) The sand grains of the Badain Jaran Desert are coarsest and best sorted, this should be associated with the strongest usual wind among these three regions. (2) The different desert have its special wind condition in their own regions. The Badain Jaran Desert and the Taklimakan Desert both show that the wind is getting weaker from north towards south, but the Hunshandake Sandy Land have the similar wind stress from north towards south. (3) The frequency curves of the sandy sediments from the Badain Jaran Desert show a kind of distinct double peaks, presumably associated with the alternative transportations of summer and winter monsoons in the north boundaries of the summer monsoon. (4) There are great differences of the carbonate contents among these three regions, this maybe associated with the humidity, the humidity of Hunshandake Sandy Land is the best, and the one of the Taklimakan Desert would be the worst among them. Analyses of The three profiles about grain size and carbonate contents show: (1) From 8ka BP, the winter-monsoon was getting weaker, and the summer-monsoon accordingly became stronger, and about 1 ka later, the winter-monsoon was getting stronger again. (2) In the stage of the profiles, there maybe show two circles of dry and wet climate, and the climate changes in those three regions show the similar trend.

Análise da dinâmica plúvio-erosiva na bacia do Córrego da Água Branca (SP)

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)

Zeolite from alkali modified kaolin increases NH4+ retention by sandy soil : column experiments

Sandy soils have low water and nutrient retention capabilities so that zeolite soil amendments are used for high value land uses including turf and horticulture to reduce leaching losses of NH4+ fertilisers. MesoLite is a zeolitic material made by caustic treatment of kaolin at 80-95oC. It has a moderately low surface area (9-12m2/g) and very high cation exchange capacity (494 cmol(+)/kg). Laboratory column experiments showed that an addition of 0.4% MesoLite to a sandy soil greatly (90%) reduced leaching of added NH4+ compared to an unamended soil and MesoLite is 11 times more efficient in retaining NH4+ than natural zeolite. Furthermore, NH4+-MesoLite slowly releases NH4+ to soil solution and is likely to be an effective slow release fertiliser.

Increasing NH4+ retention efficiency of sandy soils by adding a modified kaolin material: Mesolite

Water and ammonium retention by sandy soils may be low and result in leaching of applied fertiliser. To increase water and nutrient retention, zeolite is sometimes applied as a soil ameliorant for high value land uses including turf and horticulture. We have used a new modified kaolin material (MesoLite) as a soil amendment to test the efficiency of NH4+ retention and compared the results with natural zeolite. MesoLite is made by caustic reaction of kaolin at temperature between 80-95°C; although it has a moderate surface area, its cation exchange capacity is very high;(SA=13m2/g,CEC=500meq/100g). A 13cm tall sand column filled with ~450g of sandy soil homogeneously mixed with 1, 2, 4, and 8g of MesoLite or natural zeolite per 1kg of soil was prepared. After saturation with local bore water, concentrated ammonium sulfate solution was injected at the base. Then, bore water was passed from bottom to top through the column at amounts up to 6 pore volumes and at a constant flow rate of 10ml/min using a peristaltic pump. Concentrations of leached NH4+ were determined using an AutoAnalyser. The concentration of NH4+ leached from the column with 0.4% MesoLite was greatly (90%) reduced relative to unamended soil. Under these conditions NH4+ retention by the soil-MesoLite mixture was 11.5 times more efficient than the equivalent soil-natural zeolite mixture. Glasshouse experiments conducted in a separate study show that NH4+ adsorbed by MesoLite is available to plants.

Application of sorbers to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions from land-applied pig litter

Nitrous oxide is the foremost greenhouse gas (GHG)generated by land-applied manures and chemical fertilisers (Australian Government 2013). This research project was part of the National Agricultural Manure Management Program and investigated the potential for sorbers (i.e. specific naturally-occurring minerals) to decrease GHG emissions from spent piggery litter (as well as other manures)applied to soils. The sorbers investigated in this research were vermiculite and bentonite. Both are clays with high cation exchange capacities, of approximately 100–150 cmol/kg Faure 1998). The hypothesis tested in this study was that the sorbers bind ammonium in soil solution thereby suppressing ammonia (NH3)volatilisation and in doing so, slowing the kinetics of nitrate formation and associated nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions. A series of laboratory, glasshouse and field experiments were conducted to assess the sorbers’ effectiveness. The laboratory experiments comprised 64 vessels containing manure and sorber/manure ratios ranging from 1 : 10 to 1 : 1 incorporated into a sandy Sodosol via mixing. The glasshouse trial involved 240 pots comprising manure/sorber incubations placed 5 cm below the soil surface, two soil types (sandy Sodosol and Ferrosol) and two different nitrogen (N) application rates (50 kg N/ha and 150 kg N/ha) with a model plant (kikuyu grass). The field trial consisted of 96, 2 m · 2 m plots on a Ferrosol site with digit grass used as a model plant. Manure/ sorber mixtures were applied in trenches (5 cm below surface) to these plots at increasing sorber levels at anNloading rate of 200 kg/ha. Gas produced in all experiments was plumbed into a purpose-built automated gas analysis (N2O, NH3, CH4, CO2) system. In the laboratory experiments, the sorbers showed strong capacity to decreaseNH3 emissions (up to 80% decrease). Ammonia emissions were close to the detection limit in all treatments in the glasshouse and field trial. In all experiments, considerable N2O decreases (>40%) were achieved by the sorbers. As an example, mean N2O emission decreases from the field trial phase of the project are shown in Fig. 1a. The decrease inGHGemissions brought about by the clays did not negatively impact agronomic performance. Both vermiculite and bentonite resulted in a significant increase in dry matter yields in the field trial (Fig. 1b). Continuing work will optimise the sorber technology for improved environmental and agronomic performance across a range of soils (Vertosol, Dermosol in addition to Ferrosol and Sodosols) and environmental parameters (moisture, temperature, porosity, pH).

末次冰盛期以来中国东部沙地空间分布特征及环境记录

The latest two extreme scenarios of last glacial maximum and Holocene climatic optimum marked extreme situations in China. This paper aims to reconstruct the fossil extensions and paleoclimate of deserts in eastern China during this typical period. Aeolian sequence responds the climate change by virtue of alternation of aeolian sand layer and sandy soil layer, which correspond aridity and humidity, respectively. There is a set of contrastive deposits made up of loose sand layer and overlying dark sandy soil below land surface. This developed soil and underlying deep aeolian sand respond to H.O. and late last glacial, i.e. LGM. The typical bottom sand layers of about 50 profiles of Hulun Buir Desert, Horqin Desert and Otindag Desert were dated using OSL to confirm that they did deposid in LGM. Based on the locations of these LGM sand, distrution of gobi-desert-loess and landform control, the distribution in LGM of the three deserts were reconstructed. For the block of eastern mountain, the extreme eastern boundary of Hulun Buir Desert and Otindag Desert are not just functioned by climate background. The east of Horqin Desert is plain, hence eastern boundary of this desert is maily controlled by climate. It is considered that quite a lot of aeolian sand of LGM origined from fluvial deposit by observing regional distribution of river and SEM of sand grains. The environment alternation of of LGM-H.O. is featured by extensive expanse of active dune in LGM and grassland in H.O. Combined grain-size, susceptibility, TOC, colour and SEM measurement, the OSL chronology of relatively continued profiles since LGM of the three deserts are divided into four periods: eolian sand (15-10ka)- sandy soil (10-5ka)- alternation of black sand and yellow sand- reworking of LGM sand as destroy of soil.